Belgian kings. Leopold I

I started work in the Congo for the benefit of
civilization and for the good of Belgium. Leopold II

(words engraved on the monument
Leopold II in Arlem, Belgium)

It all started with a geographical conference held in Brussels in 1876, at which the proposals of King Leopold II of Belgium to introduce the inhabitants of Central Africa to civilization and Western values ​​were voiced. Famous guests from different countries attended the meeting. These were mainly scientists and travelers. Among them are the legendary Gerhard Rolfs, who managed to sneak into the most closed areas of Morocco under the guise of a Muslim, and Baron von Richthofen, the president of the Berlin Geographical Society and the founder of geomorphology. Baron von Richthofen was the uncle of the legendary "Red Baron" Manfred von Richthofen, the best pilot of the First World War. The famous geographer and traveler Pyotr Semenov-Tyan-Shansky arrived from Russia and chaired the conference.

As a result of the meeting, the International African Association was established under the leadership of Leopold II. In addition, the king establishes two more organizations: the Committee for the Study of the Upper Congo and the International Society of the Congo. These organizations were used by him to assert his influence in the Congo Basin. The king's emissaries signed hundreds of treaties with local tribal leaders that transferred land rights to the Association. Treaties were concluded in English or French, so tribal leaders had no idea what rights they were transferring or to what extent. However, colonial empires were built through agreements of this kind, so Leopold II was not particularly resourceful.

Berlin Conference 1884-1885 Source: africafederation.net

Exploration of Central Africa has always been associated with very high risks. Firstly, due to diseases, many of which European medicine learned to treat only in the second half of the 19th century. Secondly, safety, since not all native tribes accepted travelers peacefully. And thirdly, before the invention of railways and steamships, exploration of the central regions of Africa did not bring any profit, since it was not possible to transport the resources hidden within its borders.

By the beginning of the reign of Leopold II, the necessary tools for exploring and developing the region had already appeared. Isolation of quinine from the bark of the cinchona tree (1820) helped fight malaria, the “curse” of Central Africa. With the help of steamships and railways it was possible to move deeper into the continent, and the invention of the machine gun (for example, the Maxim system, 1883) and the improvement of small arms negated the advantage of the natives in manpower. Thanks to these three components (medicine, steamships, machine guns), the development of Central Africa by developed powers became inevitable.

The reports that came to the king said that the flora and fauna of the region were very rich, especially in wild rubber trees, from which scientists learned how to obtain rubber. Demand for it grew rapidly at the end of the 19th century. Not to mention ivory, which was then used to make artificial teeth, piano keys, candlesticks, billiard balls and much more.

In 1884-1885, the Berlin Conference, attended by representatives of Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, the United States, Great Britain, France and Belgium, formalized the colonial division of Africa between world powers. But the efforts of the Belgian king were rewarded - the Congo Free State of the SGK was proclaimed), full control over which passed to Leopold II. An area of ​​more than two million square kilometers, approximately 76 times the size of Belgium, became the property of the king, who was now the world's largest landowner. Belgian Prime Minister Auguste Beernart then stated:

“The state of which our king is proclaimed sovereign will be something like an international colony. There will be no monopolies or privileges. Quite the opposite: absolute freedom of trade, inviolability of private property and freedom of navigation.”

Prisoners in the Congo Free State. Source: claseshistoria.com

The decisions of the Berlin Conference obliged Leopold II to end the slave trade, guarantee adherence to the principles of free trade, not impose import duties for 20 years, and encourage charitable and scientific research in the region.

In one of his first decrees, Leopold II prohibits the open publication of legal acts of the Congo, so in Europe for a long time they will not know what is happening in the distant province. The king creates three ministries (foreign affairs, finance and internal affairs), and due to the fact that he will never visit his state, the post of governor-general is established with a residence in Boma, the capital of the Congo. 15 district commissariats are being created, which will be divided into many districts.

Leopold II issues a series of decrees according to which all land, with the exception of places where natives live, is declared the property of the SGC. That is, forests, fields, rivers, everything that was located outside the native villages and where the indigenous people hunted and obtained food, became the property of the state, and in fact the king.

In 1890, a discovery occurred that became a curse for the Congo: John Boyd Dunlop invents an inflatable bladder for bicycle and automobile wheels. Rubber is becoming necessary in the production of many consumer goods: rubber boots, hoses, pipes, seals, insulation for telegraphs and telephones. The demand for rubber is increasing sharply. Leopold II successively issued decrees turning the indigenous people of the Congo into serfs, who were ordered to hand over all the resources they extracted, especially ivory and rubber, to the state. A production standard was set; for rubber it was approximately four kilograms of dry matter for two weeks - a standard that could only be met by working 14-16 hours a day.

Execution of a slave in the Congo Free State. Source: wikimedia.org

An infrastructure of expropriation is being created: cities are emerging at both ends of the Congo River with the help of numerous strongholds for military and commercial purposes, and the traffic of resources from the interior of the Congo is being established. The main task of the “trading points” is the forced selection of resources from the indigenous population. In addition, the king is building a railway from the city of Leopoldville (Kinshasa) to the port of Matadi on the Atlantic.

In 1892, Leopold II decided to divide the lands of the SGC into several zones: lands transferred to companies as a concession with the exclusive right to extract and sell resources, lands of the king and lands on which companies were allowed to trade, but the royal administration imposed huge taxes and fees on them and made all sorts of obstacles. Concessions began to be issued because the royal administration did not control the entire territory of the Congo and, accordingly, was not able to benefit from its exploitation. Typically, 50% of the shares of the company receiving the concession were transferred to the state, that is, Leopold II.

The largest concession went to the Anglo-Belgian rubber export company, run by partners of Leopold II, whose value increased 30-fold in 1897. Organizations that received a concession could set production standards themselves. Not to mention the fact that the production of rubber in the SGC was almost free, and its exports increased from 81 tons in 1891 to 6 thousand tons in 1901, while in 1897 alone, the company’s profit amounted to 700%. The king's own income from his possessions grew from 150 thousand francs to 25 million in 1908. The apotheosis of capitalism. Karl Marx said: “Provide capital with 300% profit and there is no crime that he would not risk committing, at least on pain of the gallows.” Leopold II provided capital with profits even greater than 300%. The crimes were not long in coming.

Formally, to combat the slave trade, the king established the Social Forces - OS (Force Publique). Nowadays it would be called a Private Military Company (PMC). The officers were mercenaries from “white” countries, and ordinary soldiers doing the most “dirty work” were recruited throughout Africa (“wild militia”). The colonial authorities did not even disdain recruiting cannibals. Theft of children was also in the order of things, who subsequently, having undergone appropriate training, joined the ranks of OS fighters.

The main task of the OS was to control the provision of production standards. For lack of dry rubber, pickers were flogged, cutting off hands was practiced, and for damaging rubber trees they were killed. OS fighters were also punished for excessive use of ammunition, so severed hands (proof of a completed task) were carefully stored so that the authorities were sure that the cartridges were not wasted. To carry out tasks, OS fighters did not hesitate to take hostages; entire villages were destroyed for refusal to work, men were killed, and women were raped or sold into slavery. In addition to delivering rubber, the population of the colony was charged with supplying food to OS fighters, thus the population of the colony had to support their killers.

Victims of violence in the Congo Free State. Source: mbtimetraveler.com

Leopold II did not consider it necessary to build hospitals or even health centers on the lands under his control. Epidemics raged in many areas, killing tens of thousands of Congolese. From 1885 to 1908, researchers estimate that the Congolese indigenous population decreased by approximately ten million people.

The destruction of so many people could not go unnoticed. The first to declare the critical situation in the Congo was African-American George Williams, who visited the Congo and wrote a letter to King Leopold II in 1891 detailing the suffering of the Congolese under the colonialists. Williams reminded the king that "the crimes committed in the Congo are committed in the name of the king and make him no less guilty than those who commit them." He also addresses the President of the United States, the first country to recognize the SGC. In his letter, in addition to mentioning the crimes of the colonial regime, approximately 50 years before the Nuremberg Tribunal, Williams also uses the following formulation - “crimes against humanity.” In addition, European and American missionaries testify to numerous human rights violations and the critical situation in the Congo Free State.

In 1900, radical pacifist and journalist Edmund Dean Morel began publishing materials about “forced labor camps” in the Congo. Morel maintains connections with writers, journalists, politicians and businessmen; It is known that the chocolate king William Cadbury (the brand famous for Halls lollipops, Picnic and Wispa chocolate) sponsors his projects. It is interesting that Edmund Morel himself learned, or rather, guessed about the genocide in the Congo, while working in a transport company that was engaged in sending goods from the SGC to Belgium and back. Looking through the documents, he discovered that natural resources (ivory, rubber) come from the Congo to Belgium, and only military cargo (rifles, bullets, ammunition) and soldiers are sent back to the Congo. This exchange did not at all resemble free trade, and he began an independent investigation that helped open the world's eyes to the genocide of the indigenous population in the Congo. Edmund Dean Morel would later be nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.

Edmund Dean Morel. Source: Library of Congress Edmund Dean Morel. Source: Library of Congress

In 1903, under public pressure, Great Britain initiated an investigation into increasing reports of human rights violations in the SGC. British Consul Roger Casement, after visiting the Congo, during which he interviewed dozens of witnesses and victims of the policies of Leopold II, issues a report confirming many facts of extermination of people for the sake of commercial gain.

From Roger Casement's report:

“Testimony of a child: We all ran into the forest - me, mother, grandmother and sister. The soldiers killed a lot of our people. Suddenly they noticed my mother’s head in the bushes and ran up to us, grabbed my mother, grandmother, sister and one stranger’s child, smaller than us. Everyone wanted to marry my mother and argued among themselves, and in the end they decided to kill her. They shot her in the stomach, she fell, and I cried so terribly when I saw it - now I had neither a mother nor a grandmother, I was left alone. They were killed before my eyes.

A native girl reports: On the way, the soldiers noticed a child and headed towards him with the intention of killing him; the child laughed, then the soldier swung and hit him with the butt of his gun, and then cut off his head. The next day they killed my half-sister, cutting off her head, arms and legs, on which she had bracelets. Then they caught my other sister and sold her to the U-U tribe. Now she has become a slave."

In 1904, Morel and Casement created the Congo Reform Society. Morel visits the largest cities in the world with speeches and calls for the “world community” to intervene and stop the destruction of the inhabitants of the Congo, and branches of the society are opened in Europe and the USA.

Many famous writers of the era took an active part in resolving the “Congolese problem”, as well as in the activities of the Society itself: Herbert Ward, Arthur Conan Doyle, Anatole France, Joseph Conrad, Mark Twain. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle wrote the book Crimes in the Congo, and Mark Twain wrote the pamphlet Monologue of King Leopold II in Defense of His Dominion. However, the greatest effect was the adventure story “Heart of Darkness,” written by Joseph Conrad back in 1899, about the journey of the sailor Marlow along a lost tropical river in the Congo. During the journey, the main character witnesses the establishment of terrible colonial orders and meets a man named Kurtz, whose very name causes fear in everyone who pronounces it, from the natives to the colonial officials.

Joseph Conrad's story "Heart of Darkness" (Russian translation of "Heart in Darkness") formed the basis of Francis Ford Coppola's famous blockbuster "Apocalypse Now".

As a result, Great Britain demands that the decisions of the Berlin Conference be reconsidered, and the Belgian socialists initiate the emergence of an independent commission to investigate the situation in the Congo. Thus, the Congo Reform Society becomes one of the first international human rights movements of the 20th century.

A snake with the head of Leopold II attacks a slave in the Congo Free State, cartoon from 1906.

Emperor Leopold II became his godfather. Until the age of eleven, Leopold was raised by his grandmother Sophia Antonia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Leopold's father, who was fond of botany and astronomy, instilled in his son a love of natural sciences. The prince's teacher was Pastor Hoflender, who taught mathematics and ancient languages ​​- Greek and Latin.

Another son of King George III, the Duke of Kent, married Victoria of Saxe-Coburg, Dowager Princess of Leiningen, Leopold's sister. The Duke and Duchess of Kent gave birth to a girl, who later became Queen Victoria, at Kensington Palace on 24 May 1819. Leopold was his niece’s guardian for 11 years, was in regular correspondence with her, gave her political advice, she affectionately called him “my second father.”

In 1828, Leopold was offered to become king of Greece, which became independent after many years of struggle with Turkey. He initially agreed, putting forward a number of preconditions, but on May 21, 1830, he announced to representatives of Russia, Austria and Prussia that he was officially renouncing the crown.

In the midst of controversy over the candidacy for the Belgian throne, Leopold was made to understand that he was not only obliged to convert to Catholicism, but must certainly marry the daughter of the French king Louis Philippe, Louise Marie, who was 22 years younger than Leopold. The French cabinet saw this alliance as the only way to neutralize the strong English influence experienced by the future king of the Belgians. On April 9, 1835, Crown Prince Leopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor, who later became King Leopold II of Belgium, was born.

The Belgian constitution adopted in 1831 limited the power of the king. Leopold I was dissatisfied with the too small role he had to play. But on the one hand, he zealously and jealously guarded the rights that he received, and also sought to expand royal power in those areas in which the constitution did not define or poorly prescribed the rights of the king. For example, Leopold I ensured that ministers reported to the king before making an important decision.

After the war with the Netherlands ended, the struggle between liberals and Catholics, who had previously been united by a common goal, intensified within Belgium. Until 1840, Leopold I managed to maintain balance by maneuvering between parties. On March 17, 1841, the Senate called on the king to eliminate differences in parliament, but this caused numerous protests. When Leopold I refused to dissolve parliament, the cabinet resigned and a new government was created, headed by Mühlener and Nothomb. They sent instructions to provincial governors to achieve reconciliation. But, despite this, the struggle between the two parties in the elections that took place on June 8, 1841, which significantly changed the composition of the chamber, became fierce. An Orange conspiracy was discovered, led by General Vandermeer and the retired General Vandersmissen. For many participants in the conspiracy who were sentenced to death by the court, Leopold I commuted the execution to 20 years' imprisonment. But all attempts by the coalition governments of Naughton and de Weyer to reconcile the two parties were unsuccessful. Many issues caused fierce struggle, for example, the teaching of God's law in schools. Leopold I tried to maneuver between them. But since 1846, Leopold I began to form a cabinet of ministers from representatives of the party that prevailed in parliament.

Leopold I tried to strengthen the Belgian army. With the help of S. Brooker and General Even, he increased its number to 100,000 people in 1847. Despite the debt that Belgium received along with independence, industry developed in the country and railways were built. And customs agreements strengthened the family ties that connected Leopold I with the rulers of neighboring countries.

In 1846, Leopold I did not follow the advice of Louis Philippe I and did not ban the Liberal Union, which was advocating a radical reform program. On the contrary, after the Liberals won the elections in 1847, he appointed Charles Roger as head of the cabinet. In 1848, when a new revolution broke out in France, King Leopold expressed to Parliament his willingness, like his father-in-law, to abdicate the throne in favor of the Belgian nation. Roger's liberal cabinet, together with parliament, supported the king. Parliament approved: 1) an extraordinary increase in taxes, amounting to 8/12 of the land tax, 2) a forced loan of 25 million francs and a state guarantee for the issue of bank notes for 30 million francs. But, having introduced emergency measures, they also went to change the legislation. Laws were passed that reduced the electoral qualification to 20 florins, a ban was introduced on combining civil service and parliamentary positions, and the stamp tax on newspapers was abolished. Thanks to these reforms, a revolution did not begin in Belgium. And when on March 28, 1848, several French revolutionaries tried to bring revolution to Belgium, they were rebuffed. After Napoleon III Bonaparte seized power in France on December 2, 1851, some of the French, dissatisfied with the confiscation of the property of the House of Orleans, moved to Belgium. The emigrants, through the founding of many anti-Bonapartist magazines, tried to restore their position in France. On the one hand, Leopold I and the government avoided irritating the new France and placed the emigrants under strict police supervision. On the other hand, the government demanded that funds be allocated for the construction of a fortified camp near Antwerp. Under these conditions, Leopold I and the new government of Heinrich de Brucker tried to strengthen Belgium's position on the world stage. In August 1853, the Crown Prince Duke of Brabant married the Austrian Princess Charlotte of Wales.

From a relationship with Arkadia Meyer (1826-1897), who received the title of Baroness von Eppinhoven, Leopold had a son, Georg (1849-1904), who founded the family of barons von Eppinhoven

On July 21, 1831, Brussels celebrated the entry of the new monarch into the city. On the Place Royale, in front of the Church of Saint-Jacques de Coutenberg, a festively decorated tribune stood. Leopold rode up on a white horse, dismounted, mounted the podium and took a place under the canopy. In a calm voice, with a slight German accent, the king pronounced the text of the oath. He swore “to remain faithful to the constitution and laws of the Belgian people, to defend the independence of the nation and the integrity of its territory.”

Belgian Constitution of 1831

What was his new position and what rights did the Belgians grant to their king? “State power,” says the Belgian Constitution, “comes from the nation. Members of both houses represent the nation. The king ascends the throne only after, standing between both chambers, he solemnly pronounces the oath due to him. He has no other powers other than those prescribed in the constitution or deriving from adopted and published laws.” At that time, even in the constitutions of the German kingdoms, even in those that arose around the same time, the monarchical principle was formed completely differently. In Bavaria, for example, the corresponding passage sounded like this: “The king is always the head of state, in him alone all the rights of state power are united, and he applies them in accordance with the regulations emanating from himself and documented in the current constitution.” If in Bavaria or other countries - the king, with the highest mercy, deigns to create a constitution, then in Belgium, on the contrary, the constitution created the king.

Leopold I was at first reluctant to accept that he would have to play the role of a representative head of state rather than a reigning monarch. That he eventually came to terms with this fact must be largely attributed to the influence of his adviser Christian Friedrich Stockmar.

Stockmar encouraged the king and advised him to use all the power possible within the limits assigned to him. “Try to act in such a way that all the freedoms granted to you do not conflict with the established order, Rule honestly in the spirit of the constitution, and if you consider that good government on this basis is impossible, address the parliament and share your thoughts. If it turns out that you acted wisely and conscientiously, you will certainly win people over and they will accept the changes you proposed.”

The advice of a friend brought Leopold out of his apathy and encouraged him to act within the limits of the powers given to him, which meanwhile became the subject of a fierce debate between the parties. Foreign policy was such a controversial issue, as well as the right to be commander in chief in the event of war - here he was about to undergo a severe test in the very near future.

Dutch attack

Ten days after Leopold entered Brussels, the army of the Dutch king invaded Belgium. William I of Orange finally realized that he had given his southern provinces into the hands of notorious revolutionaries. The Belgian army was in disastrous condition. It was clear to every outside observer that the Dutch campaign would be like an easy walk.

In view of the threat to the very existence of Belgium, Leopold did not hesitate, but immediately turned to England and France for help. While London got away with diplomatic exhortations, King Louis Philippe immediately sent his troops on the campaign. However, just before the Belgian border, the French soldiers were stopped and even ordered to retreat. The Belgian parliament questioned whether the king's independent request for help was sufficiently constitutional. Leopold, who felt betrayed by the army and abandoned by his own government, tore his hair out in despair - he learned from experience that his subjects could be called anything but accommodating.

The short-lived triumph of William of Orange

The deliberate delay and forced non-intervention of French troops initially ensured a triumphant success for the Netherlands. Their advanced units approached the gates of Brussels. Then, when the French nevertheless went on the offensive, threw back the enemy and quickly restored their previous position, the great powers did not want to leave William of Orange with nothing. Belgium had to give up the western half of Luxembourg, and the new border separated it forever from Maastricht and from the right bank of the Meuse.

It was not easy for Leopold I to obey this dictate. After all, he swore to protect the integrity of Belgian territory. Shouldn't he now abdicate the throne? And again he received the best advice from Stockmar: “Let him (the king) shout about injustice. Let him point out that he arrived in Belgium under different conditions. Let him convincingly explain to the Belgians that he did everything possible to achieve the most favorable decision for them. Let the ministry shout about the same thing. Thus, at the same time, everything will be done to ensure that the chambers accept the draft peace treaty.” Leopold agreed with this.

Siege of Antwerp 1832 – history in old Russian orthography belgium-retro.ru

In 1832, the Antwerp citadel withstood a new siege - on November 15, 1831, the Dutch and Belgian attorneys, through the mediation of the authorized great powers (England, France, Prussia and Russia), concluded an agreement, according to which, among other things, both parties were mutually obliged cleanse yourself belonging to the opposing party possession. The King of the Netherlands did not approve, however, some articles of this treaty, and refused to surrender the Antwerp citadel, then Leopold, King of the Belgians, asked for help from England and France.

A wedding dictated by state interests

While the Belgian king was ready to submit to the inevitable, the Dutch sovereign turned out to be a breaker of the agreement. Although William's troops retreated, the fortress of Antwerp and some small territories in the province of Limburg remained under the rule of the invaders. This, in turn, prompted the Belgians not to liberate Luxembourg and the right bank of the Meuse.

Prussia, Austria and Russia - albeit with restraint - supported Leopold's rival. A solution to the problems emerged only when King Leopold gave his consent to the marriage, which was clearly motivated by political considerations. “Take your wife and [as a retaliatory move] get Antwerp back” – this is how the Belgian historian Bronne subsequently formulated this agreement. The wife of the already middle-aged Leopold was to be the young Louise-Marie, daughter of the French king Louis Philippe. Leopold I married her in August 1832, and in December of that year his father-in-law's troops drove the Dutch from Antwerp.

The Belgian king killed two birds with one stone. Thanks to the family support of the French king, he strengthened his throne and at the same time, by returning Antwerp, he healed the wounded national identity of his subjects. From then on, the Belgians rallied more closely around the newly created throne.

Family life and children

After the first foreign policy storms died down, Leopold began to settle down in the Belgian kingdom. He had three palaces at his disposal: the city palace in Brussels, the Tervuren hunting castle in the heart of Brabant and the Laeken palace in the northern suburbs of the capital. For housing, Leopold shaved Laeken. The charming location of the palace among the green expanses reminded him of England and the happy days spent there. Louise-Marie did everything to be an exemplary wife to Leopold and win the hearts of the Belgians. However, the gentle, timid, and at times rather inflexible Frenchwoman never managed to truly become her own. She was considered to keep her distance too much, and people mistook her reserve for arrogance. One day she complained to her father about her unsuccessful relationship with the Belgians: “I can tirelessly repeat that Brussels is a hundred times more brilliant and cheerful city than Paris, that I love Belgium more than France. They still won’t believe me and will blame me for not being sincere enough.”

Leopold, a highly secular man, did not consider it necessary to delve into these unimportant problems. Much more distressing to him was the fact that for the maintenance of his family and court he had to be content with a constitutionally determined annual sum of only 1,300,000 florins. As a result, life at court was simple and straightforward; the king and queen had very few servants. “The king, his dog and I are all the inhabitants of the castle,” Louise once wrote. Soon, however, the premises of the castle were filled with children's screams: in 1833, the queen gave birth to a son, Louis Philippe, who, unfortunately, died V aged one year. In 1835, Crown Prince Leopold was born, followed by Prince Philip in 1837, and in 1840 the last chick appeared in the family nest - Princess Charlotte opened her eyes and saw God’s world for the first time.

Domestic political strength tests

Leopold, however, did not have enough free time to devote to his children. Politics demanded everything of him, without a trace. In the public life of the country, he needed to deal with three issues: with supporters of William of Orange, with Catholics and with liberals. In the first years of his reign, Catholics and liberals formed an alliance in parliament, and only supporters of Orange voted separately. Their rebellion in 1834 was nipped in the bud: a spontaneous demonstration of several hundred citizens was enough to make it clear to the few representatives of the nobility that there was no question of a new unification with the Netherlands.

The first railways and the rise of the economy

In the 1830s, Belgium experienced an unprecedented economic boom; on May 5, 1835, Leopold I was able to inaugurate the first railway line on the European continent. The track that linked Brussels and Mechelen was followed only months later by the German railway line: Nuremberg-Fgort. The Belgian railway became the engine of the market: already in 1839, the railway operated 82 locomotives and 1000 carriages. Rich coal deposits between Liège and Mops also stimulated the development of railway traffic. The rise of the economy in the southern, Walloon regions of the country was countered by its decline in Flanders. The local flax spinning, once the basis of local wealth, could no longer compete with the English mechanized production of linen. The fact that things did not lead to open riots among the poor is explained primarily by the pacifying influence of the church.

“Painful sacrifices” for the peace of Europe

However, Leopold's main field of activity was and remained foreign policy. On this field, the king's competitors, the Belgian diplomats, did not have the slightest chance to even become equal with him. As a former Russian general, uncle of the Queen of England, son-in-law of the French king and confidant of Metternich, the Belgian monarch maintained close contacts with almost all European courts. And they helped him peacefully resolve conflicts both in Belgium and in Europe.

Already in 1839, a state crisis broke out in Belgium. William of Orange finally switched to a conciliatory position and recognized the independence of his Belgian neighbor. Now the Belgians had to fulfill their part of the London Treaty and liberate the right bank of the Meuse and Luxembourg. They resisted and dodged in every possible way. And most of all the king. He sent a pleading letter to his niece in England, but it did not help. The girl, who looked up to her uncle, turned into the powerful Queen Victoria, for whom state interests were more important than family relationships. In the end, Belgium retreated, and the Belgian king gave in.

“Our only moral support is Belgium”

If the sacrifice made by Leopold nevertheless aroused respect, then in subsequent years the king of the Belgians won deep respect and even admiration throughout Europe. During the Eastern crisis in 1841, it was his intervention that proved decisive and helped save the continent from a major war. And during the revolution of 1848, when some thrones were shaking greatly, the Belgian king was firmly in the saddle. Leopold, who, because of his quiet voice or his always slightly tired movements, was derisively called “Monsieur mapo-little by little” or “Marquis overly cautious,” reacted so quickly when a dangerous or critical situation arose that his opponents could only be surprised. His government expelled political exiles—among them Karl Marx—but liberalized voting rights and took a strong stand against social injustice. By doing this, it knocked weapons out of the hands of the revolutionaries, who left the state and kingdom alone.

Happiness and sorrows of the 1850s

On the contrary, the revolution of 1848 cost the French king Lune Philippe his throne: he died in 1850 in English exile. His unfortunate daughter Louise Marie survived him very briefly. Debilitated by a severe lung disease, she died three months after the death of her father. Leopold's grief did not last too long. He soon found solace in the arms of Arcadia Mayer, his long-time lover.

After Emperor Napoleon III, Bonaparte's nephew, ascended the French throne on December 2, 1852, Leopold feared that his old Bonapartist grievances against Belgium might be awakened. He immediately petitioned parliament to strengthen the national armed forces.

At the same time, he managed, using his proven method of kinship diplomacy, to enlist the friendly support of Austria: in 1853, he asked the Austrian Emperor for the hand of his daughter, Archduchess Maria Henrietta, for his eldest son, Crown Prince Leopold. Although this marriage subsequently ended unsuccessfully, for a while the king could rejoice at the diplomatic chess move he had made. On July 21, 1856, he proudly hosted a parade through the streets of Brussels in honor of the silver jubilee of his coronation.

Loneliness and death of Leopold I

However, in the last years of his life, King Leopold I was noticeably burdened by his loneliness. Already on the eve of the Crimean War, he became bitterly convinced that his former influence on European politics was over, and soon the problems of domestic politics made themselves felt. The fact is that Belgian Catholics and liberals lived among themselves in peace and harmony for quite a long time, but only as long as the question of the existence of the state was at stake. Now that this issue was settled, so-called Unionism came to an end: a bitter dispute broke out in Parliament about denominational schools and about the law regulating charities. The king was forced to watch powerlessly as national unity disintegrated.

In 1862, doctors discovered he had gallstones. Three years later, on December 10, 1865, King Leopold I died. Half a million Belgians, standing along the streets of Brussels, silently watched the funeral procession of their king. “The best diplomat I have ever met,” Metternich said of him. At first, the choice of the Belgians and its agreement was just a mutual search for a way out of a difficult situation, but the results exceeded all expectations: the Coburg prince managed to strengthen the existence of the young Belgian monarchy, achieve full recognition of independent Belgium and maintain peace.

Leopold I(16 December 1790 – 10 December 1865) - first king of Belgium ("King of the Belgians") from 1831 to 1865 of the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha dynasty.

Childhood

Descended from the family of the sovereign Dukes of Saxe-Coburg, he was the eighth child and third son of Grand Duke Franz of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Augusta Caroline Reuss von Ebersdorff. Emperor Leopold II became his godfather. Until the age of eleven, Leopold was raised by his grandmother Sophia Antonia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Leopold's father, who was fond of botany and astronomy, instilled in his son a love of natural sciences. The prince's teacher was Pastor Hoflender, who taught mathematics, ancient languages, Greek and Latin.

General of Russian service

Accepted into the Russian service as a lieutenant colonel with enlistment in the Izmailovsky Life Guards Regiment on March 28, 1799. He was related to the Russian imperial house: his sister Anna Feodorovna was the wife of the heir Constantine, and his sister Antonia was married to the brother of Empress Maria Feodorovna. In Russian service, Leopold learned to speak Russian fluently.

February 1, 1801 transferred to the Life Guards. Cavalry regiment colonel, May 16, 1803 received the rank of major general. He took part in the campaign to Austria in 1805 and was in the retinue of Emperor Alexander I at Austerlitz in 1805. In October 1806, the troops of the French general Jean-Pierre Augereau invaded the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and captured the capital. Leopold, along with his dying father Franz, was placed under arrest. In 1807 he took part in the battles of Heilsberg and Friedland. Together with his brother Ernest, he negotiated in Paris for the return of the dukedom. In 1808 he accompanied Emperor Alexander on a trip to Erfurt; in 1809, at the insistence of Napoleon, he left Russian service and returned to his homeland.

In 1813 he again entered the Russian army and was soon appointed commander of the Life Guards. Cuirassier Regiment, with which he distinguished himself near Kulm and was awarded the Order of St. George, 4th class, on September 9, 1813.

For the Battle of Leipzig he received a gold sword with diamonds. In 1814 he fought at Brienne, Laon, Fère-Champenoise and Paris. On October 28, 1814, he was promoted to lieutenant general, and on June 1, 1815, he was appointed commander of the 1st Uhlan Division.

Husband of a British heiress

On March 31, 1814, the allied armies led by Emperor Alexander I entered Paris. “I don’t remember a more beautiful moment in my life,” said Leopold, “than when I entered this city as a winner, where I led such a miserable existence.” The Bourbons received Leopold with great courtesy. He appeared at the receptions of Talleyrand and Marshal Ney. The chamberlains and ministers, who had once refused his protection, now sought his acquaintance, surprised by the friendly disposition that the Russian emperor showed him. Leopold came to the Congress of Vienna. And after the end of the congress, he visited England in the retinue of Alexander I.

In mid-June 1815, Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna (sister of Alexander I) introduced Leopold to Princess Charlotte, daughter of the Prince of Wales, eldest son of King George III, who was regent for his mentally ill father. Leopold and Charlotte fell in love with each other. In London, Leopold, because of his poverty, was the subject of ridicule from supporters of William of Orange, whose bride was Charlotte. Leopold was supported by Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent. In August 1815, Leopold moved to Paris, maintaining a relationship with Charlotte through correspondence.

In 1816, Leopold, after a written invitation from the regent, the Prince of Wales, settled in England. On 21 February, Leopold arrived in London and was received by George, Prince of Wales, and a few days later was formally introduced to the queen, princesses and his bride. Charlotte kissed her father for the first time, so great was her gratitude. Within two weeks he received 50 thousand pounds, became a member of the House of Lords and a general in the British army. The Regent solemnly informed the Privy Council that his daughter was marrying for love. But in retaliation for disobedience, the regent announced that he was going to confer on her husband the title of Duke of Kendal, after the tiny estate; Previously, this title was borne by the German mistress of George I. However, the assignment of the title did not take place due to the imminent death of Princess Charlotte, who died on November 7, 1817 from complications during childbirth. Her son was stillborn. Leopold was deeply saddened by the loss of his wife and child and subsequently named his daughter from his second marriage, the future Empress of Mexico, Charlotte.

King of Belgium from the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha dynasty, who reigned from 1830 to 1865. Son of Duke Franz of Saxe-Coburg-Saaldfeldskot and Augusta, née Countess of Reis-Eberdorfer. J.: 1) since 1816, Charlotte, daughter of King George IV of Great Britain (b. 1796, d. 1817); 2) from 1832 Louise, daughter of King Louis Philippe of France (b. 1812, d. 1850). Genus. 16 Dec 1790, d. 10 Dec. 1865

Until the age of eleven, Leopold was raised by his grandmother Sophia Antonia of Brunswick, from whom he inherited courteous manners and dignity that never left him. Since childhood, he had an attractive appearance: regular facial features, light brown hair and beautiful green eyes. Leopold's father, Duke Franz, was a very educated man - he was fond of botany and astronomy. Communication with him aroused the boy's interest in natural sciences. Later, the young Duke's education was entrusted to Pastor Hoflender, who taught him mathematics and ancient languages. The future king owed him a somewhat spiritual, Protestant mentality.

In 1806, the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld was occupied by the French. All property of the reigning family was confiscated. The old duke died at this time. Leopold had to spend some time in prison in the Saalfeld fortress, and then huddle with his mother in the back rooms of his own palace. The following year, Leopold went to Paris to seek the favor of the emperor and had brilliant success here. He charmed the entire capital's society with his beauty. Even Napoleon noted him and mentioned Leopold in his memoirs: “He was the most handsome young man I ever saw in the Tuileries.” However, Leopold did not remain in French service. He spent several years in Russia, where he was reputed to be a brilliant Guards officer. In 1814 Together with Emperor Alexander I, Leopold entered defeated Paris. The Duke spent the next year in Vienna, which then became the center of Europe, and from 1816 he settled in England. Here he very advantageously married the granddaughter of George III, Charlotte, Duchess of Kendal, and became a member of the House of Lords and a general in the British army. This marriage helped Leopold improve his financial situation (he was the eighth child in the family, and he had to live very modestly). In 1817, Charlotte, who loved her wonderful husband very much, died of childbed fever. Leopold took this loss seriously. A few days later he fell ill with typhoid fever and barely survived. Having moved to Clermont, he lived there for a long time in melancholy solitude, then went to travel. Moving from one country to another, he traveled all over Europe, so that he was well known at all courts. Everywhere he gained fame as an efficient, capable and energetic person. In 1828, Leopold was offered the crown of Greece, which had recently gained independence after a stubborn struggle with Turkey. However, he did not really like Greece. At first he accepted the offer, subjecting his consent to many preconditions, but in May 1830 he announced his refusal. A few months later, a revolution occurred in Belgium, which separated from Holland and became an independent state. Among the many candidates for the Belgian crown, Leopold did not at first play a prominent role. But as the great powers rejected one candidate after another, his candidacy became increasingly acceptable. Finally, in June 1831, after heated debate, the Belgian National Congress elected Leopold as king. Two weeks later, he solemnly rode into Brussels on a white horse and took the oath of allegiance to the Belgian people and the constitution. In August, Leopold married the French princess Louise Marie. This marriage was purely political - only on these conditions did the French king Louis Philippe agree to give the Belgian throne to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.

Over the next ten years, Leopold was consumed by the conflict with Holland. Only in 1842, after the final delimitation of the borders, were all controversial issues between the two kingdoms resolved. Leopold always maintained good relations with other European states (especially with Great Britain, where his niece Victoria ascended the throne). He was a very experienced man in politics, knew people very well, and therefore his word always carried great weight. Inside the country, the king devoted a lot of effort to creating and strengthening a modern army. By 1847 it already numbered more than 100 thousand people. The government encouraged industry, trade, and railroad construction. Two public universities were founded in Ghent and Liege, and many colleges and primary schools were founded in other cities. Leopold's great merit was that he was able to direct the fierce struggle between Catholics and liberals into a civilized direction. Under him, a parliamentary system developed in Belgium1, in which two parties alternated between each other. The king always relied on the parliamentary majority.

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"LEOPOLD I, King of Belgium" in books

Chapter 3 THE SCARLET KING AND THE WHITE KING