Characteristics of verbal teaching methods. Research methods, their characteristics
. Observation method- this is the main method modern psychology, the essence of which is that scientific facts are collected through not interference in the life of an object, but passive contemplation of this fact
Observations can be carried out both short-term and long-term. Therefore, these types of observations are the cross-sectional method (short-term) and longitudinal (long-term)
The researcher can play the role of a passive observer (detached observation), or can actively interact with the object of study, while simultaneously observing him (participant observation)
Observation can be either selective or general, subject and object. For example, what is common to an object is that all members of the team are monitored. Selective by object - until observation, only individual members of the team are included. General on the subject - all manifestations of the psyche (character, temperament, will) are examined in the object of observation. Selective by subject - only one problem (thinking or memory) is studied for the entire array (in the Object).
The use of surveillance is subject to the following conditions:
1) determination - defining the goal, task of the study;
2) natural conditions - typical observation conditions (so that persons do not know that they are being monitored);
3) having a plan;
4) precise definition of the object and subject of observation;
5) limitation by the researcher of the signs that are the subject of observation;
6) development by the researcher of unambiguous criteria for assessing these characteristics;
7) ensuring clarity and duration of observation
. Figure 124. Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method
The observation method is used not only by scientists, but also by students, for example, when accumulating data for writing psychological characteristics personalities
. Experiment- the main method of psychology, which consists in the fact that facts are obtained by creating special conditions in which the object could most clearly manifest the subject being studied
There are experiments: laboratory and natural, ascertaining and molding
. Laboratory carried out in special psychological laboratories using appropriate equipment
. Natural experiment carried out under normal operating conditions for the subject under study. A natural experiment, just like a laboratory experiment, is carried out according to a specific program, but in such a way that the person does not know that it is being studied and solves the problem calmly, at her usual pace.
. Constitutive experiment aimed at fixing the existing psychological characteristics of a person, molding is focused on stimulating the desired mental manifestations
. Figure 125. Advantages and disadvantages of the experiment
Features of auxiliary methods of psychology
. Conversation-method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication, includes questions and answers
. The conversation can be diagnostic (detects), corrective (forms)
The conversation method can produce valuable results under the following conditions:
1) a clear definition by the researcher of the purpose of the conversation;
2) clear planning of the system of questions;
3) the system of questions must correspond to age and individual characteristics subjects, be dynamic, i.e. contents of the following
the question should depend on the content of the answer to the previous one, etc.;
4) the conversation should be relaxed and friendly
. Questionnaire- a method of socio-psychological research using questionnaires, the content of questions and the method of answers in which are planned in advance
The reliability of questionnaire data is checked in two ways:
1) a repeated survey of the same persons using the same procedure;
2) control of questionnaire data by other methods:
Questioning third parties;
Observation;
Analysis of available documents
The questionnaire method can be used by correspondence, a relatively economical method of collecting data. It allows you to analyze and process data using statistics. This method is used in mass surveys
. Interview- a method that is used to collect primary information in psychological, sociological and pedagogical research
. Sociometry (from Lat. societas - society metreo- I measure) - developed. J. Moreno
This method used to derive or formulate a working hypothesis in the early stages of research; data collection, addition, clarification, expansion, control of data obtained by other methods. Interview as a method three types:
1) a standardized interview, in which the wording and sequence of questions are determined in advance;
2) a non-standard interview, in which the person conducting it is guided only by a general survey plan and formulates a question in accordance with a specific situation;
3) drinking a standard interview containing a certain amount possible questions
. Test (from English test - test). Tests are tasks that are small in scope and time to complete, and are the same for all subjects.
The choice of types of interviews depends on the content of the study, the level of study of the problem, and the training of the researcher
. Testing is one of the auxiliary methods of psychology, the use of which can serve to identify:
1) the level of development of certain mental functions (observation, memory, thinking, imagination, attention, etc.);
2) the presence or absence of certain knowledge, abilities, skills, mental qualities, good breeding, etc.);
3) the degree of suitability or readiness of a growing individual or adult for a certain profession;
4) mental illness;
5) interests, opinions, abilities of a person
. Analysis of activity products- This is one of the auxiliary methods of psychology. This includes analysis of drawings, certain images
. Sociometric method studies the nature of relationships in a team through the selection procedure
Psychology also uses data processing methods - these are quantitative and qualitative methods. TO quantitative methods include, for example, the determination of average values and measures of dispersion, correlation coefficients, graphs, histograms, diagrams, tables, etc. The qualitative method involves the analysis and synthesis of the data obtained, their systematization and comparison with the results of other data.
There are many methods used in psychology. Scientists decide which one is rational to use in each specific case, depending on the tasks and object of study. In this case, as a rule, they use not just one method, but several, which complement and control each other.
The visual research method is the most important of the methods used in TCED to search for informative features.
The microscopic method is a method of studying material evidence using special instruments - microscopes, which allow one to obtain enlarged images of the external structure of objects and their smallest details, invisible to the naked eye.
The oblique light research method is a method of increasing the visibility of the details of an object when illuminated by a directed beam of light with an angle of incidence of light significantly less than 90°: optimally 10° * 35°. In TKED, this method is used to identify slight relief of pressure marks, traces from writing instruments, damage to the surface layer of paper in the form of raised fibers, pasted areas that are not in the same plane with the surface of the document, as well as to identify strokes on the background of paper or among other fragments images by the difference in their gloss (mirror reflection). To exclude the interfering influence of extraneous light, observation with oblique lighting is carried out in a darkened room.
Transmitted light research method (transmission) - used to identify the details of an object with different optical density. Such a study is used to detect areas of a document that have been erased, etched, washed out, as well as to study the structure of paper, watermarks (or filigree), to read taped texts, filled in, smeared, crossed out entries, as well as to read texts on carbon paper.
Spectral methods - allow you to study the results of the interaction of a selected narrow range of the light spectrum with a substance or with the material of an object. Radiant energy, passing through matter (material) or from one medium to another, changes under the influence of the substance of the object. At the same time, the indicators of reflection, absorption, and transmission of light change. The dependence of the reflection coefficient (the ratio of radiation reflected from an object to the entire incident flux) on the radiation wavelength is a characteristic of any substance. This characteristic can be recorded visually, photographically, using electronic and optical technology.
Color separation method - identifies differences in color and shades of objects. When examining documents, it happens that one colored object is invisible or poorly distinguishable against the surrounding background or among other colored objects. The contrast between them can be enhanced by converting spectral differences into differences in brightness; such a transformation is called color separation).
In TKED, the color separation method is used to identify filled-in, smeared, crossed-out texts, to establish the fact of additional writing by differentiating dyes and strokes that have different degrees of spectral absorption. This method is also used to enhance the contrast between low-visibility records and the background of the document by studying in the zone of the spectrum where the substance of the strokes has a maximum absorption (determined experimentally).
In color separation, it is important to choose the right filter, following the rule of complementary color and using the color wheel, known to everyone from school.
For example (Fig. 1.1), to enhance the contrast of a blue stroke on white paper, find an additional color in the opposite sector of the circle - orange - and examine the document through an orange filter. At the same time, the strokes look darker and more contrasting, since the additional color filter transmits the maximum rays of that part of the light spectrum that correspond to the maximum absorption of the substance of the strokes, while the paper reflects these rays. The complementary colors to yellow and orange are violet and blue.
Rice. 1.1. Interdependence of colors in color separation
Research methods in reflected UV and IR rays. These methods of document research are based on selective takeover, transmission and reflection by the substance of document materials of influencing electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet and infrared ranges of the spectrum (on the varying ability of the stroke material to reflect, absorb and transmit these rays).
It is known that UV rays occupy the spectral region from 10 * 400 nm: the near spectrum zone (400 - 315 nm), the middle zone (315 - 280 nm), the far zone (280 - 10 nm). In the practice of TKED, the UV region of the spectrum from 250 nm to 385 nm is most often used; the selection of the desired zone is ensured by UV light filters (UFS-1, ... UFS-4).
High- and ultra-high-pressure mercury-quartz lamps are used as UV light sources (Fig. 1.2): in devices of various modifications, as well as lasers that generate UV radiation. Also widely used are UV illuminators OI-18, illuminators for special microscopes, for example, MLD-1, LYUMAM and other brands.
Rice. 1.2. Scheme of photography in reflected UV rays, where: 1 - UV illuminator;
2 - document; 3 - UV filter; 4 - camera lens
The method of research in reflected infrared rays (IRL) is based on the ability of some writing materials containing carbonaceous substances as components (ink, graphite pencil, printing ink, copy paper, typewritten tape, electrographic toner, black ink of inkjet printers) and metal salts to absorb infrared radiation, unlike other carbon-free coloring substances (ballpoint pen pastes, ink, stamp ink, etc.). It is used to differentiate writing materials of the same color, but different in composition, when identifying additional writing and reprinting, filled in and crossed out texts.
Sources of IR radiation (Fig. 1.3) are mainly incandescent lamps and special pulse lamps. The IR spectrum is cut off using light filters KS-17, KS-18, KS-19, IKS-1, IKS-2, IKS-3, which are placed in front of the radiation receiver. To visualize the resulting invisible picture in the infrared zone of the spectrum, there are image intensifier tubes that display visible image, and also provide its photographic recording in the “Photo” mode.
Rice. 1.3. Scheme of photographing a document in reflected infrared light, where: 1 - IR illuminator; 2 - document; 3 - PCL filter;
4 - camera lens; 5- image intensifier
Luminescent analysis methods are based on the ability of some substances to fluoresce when exposed to UV or blue-green rays in a darkened room.
With fluorescence, the glow fades almost instantly after the excitation ceases.
In accordance with Stokes' law, the luminescence spectrum is always shifted towards longer wavelengths compared to the spectrum of exciting radiation (the exciting wavelength is always shorter than the luminescence wavelength).
Depending on the spectral composition of the exciting radiation, luminescence can be observed in the visible, far red and near infrared regions of the light spectrum. When the substance of the strokes and the document base are exposed to UV rays, visible luminescence appears, which can be recorded by photography. To do this, a light filter is placed in front of the lens, transmitting visible rays according to the color of the luminescence (if orange, then OS-12) and blocking UV rays (see Fig. 1.4).
Rice. 1.4. Scheme of photographing visible luminescence excited by UV light, where: 1 - UV illuminator; 2 - document; 3 - UV filter; 4 - light filter based on luminescence color, 5 - camera
To excite red and IR luminescence in document materials, blue-green radiation is used using an SZS-21 filter, which transmits blue-green rays. When photographing luminescence, a light filter is placed in front of the lens, blocking blue-green rays and transmitting either red (s/f KS-17 and KS-18 for luminescence in the far red region) or IR rays (s/f KS-19 and ICS filters with luminescence in the IR region) (Fig. 1.5). Luminescence can also be detected using image intensifier tubes and other more modern technology.
Rice. 1.5. Scheme of photographing red and infrared luminescence excited by SZ rays, where: 1 - illuminator; 2 - document;
3 - SZ light filter; 4 - light filter based on luminescence color,
5 - camera, 6 - image intensifier
Luminescent methods are used to identify invisible and low-visibility writing, traces of etching, washing, erasing, addition, the sequence of applying intersecting strokes, as well as to differentiate writing materials of the same color.
Research method in the field of high frequency currents. The method is based on obtaining a photographic image of the surfaces and internal structure of an object under the influence of a high-frequency electrostatic discharge. For this purpose, a capacitor is used, between the plates of which a document and photographic film (photo paper) are placed. The capacitor is placed in the circuit of a high-frequency current generator, when turned on, a spark discharge occurs, exposing the corresponding areas of the photographic film.
Photography in the field of high frequency currents (HFI) allows you to:
Identify depressed strokes and erased entries;
Determine the content of filled-in, covered-over and crossed-out texts;
Identify traces of photo card replacement on a document;
Identify new typewriters that do not have visible defects by the relief marks on the paper from impacts of the typewriter type.
So, the ones listed above physical methods TKED have one common feature that unites them - they are non-destructive, do not destroy the document, do not change it appearance and content. Therefore, in the production of TKED, these methods are of primary use.
Methods of forensic research photography. A special place TKED is occupied by photographic research methods, which are non-destructive. The advantage of photographic processes over ordinary visual perception is explained by three factors:
1) extremely wide spectral sensitivity, which makes it possible to record images not only in the visible part of the light spectrum, but also in the UV, IR zones of the spectrum, as well as in X-rays;
2) the ability to obtain an optical image with a higher contrast than in reality;
3) the ability of the photoreceiving material to accumulate light energy, which makes it possible to obtain an image of normal quality in low illumination of the subject being photographed.
Methods of forensic research photography are divided into types: a) large-scale photography with significant magnification; b) enhancing the contrast of a low-visibility image; c) photography in invisible areas of the spectrum; d) photography of luminescence (visible and invisible).
Large-scale photography with significant magnification is divided into subtypes: macro- and microphotography (up to 20 x and over 20 x times).
Photographic contrast enhancement refers to methods used to change the ratio of brightness of an object on black and white material (color separation) or color tones on color (color separation).
Contrast enhancement methods are divided into three subtypes: contrast enhancement during shooting; in the process of manifestation; finished negative photographic image.
Methods of photography in reflected invisible rays of the spectrum are divided into four subtypes: photography in the IR and UV zones of the spectrum; in X-rays and gamma rays.
Luminescence photography methods: photography of visible luminescence excited by UV and blue-green rays; photography of IR luminescence, invisible to the eye.
Wet copying method (Fig. 1.6). This method is based on the phenomenon of adhesion (sticking) or diffusion onto a contact material moistened with the simplest organic solvent - water.
The wet copying method reveals differences in writing materials according to the degree of their copyability on a wet sticky surface. Upon contact with the moistened surface of fixed photographic paper, particles of coloring substances of some of the writing materials stick to it, leaving mirror strokes of written characters and other images on this new medium.
The method is used to identify filled-in, smeared, crossed-out texts, establish additions, and determine the sequence of execution of intersecting strokes (document details).
Rice. 1.6. Scheme of the wet copying method, where: 1 - fixed photo paper; 2 - layer of organic solvent - water; 3 - coloring matter of strokes based on the document; 4 - document base (paper, etc.); 5 - coloring matter of strokes, copied onto fixed photographic paper
To copy water-soluble dyes, a gelatin layer of fixed photographic material (sometimes filter paper) moistened with distilled water is used. Photographic paper is pre-treated under non-actinic light in a fixer, thoroughly washed in running water and dried. The surface of a piece of photo paper is moistened with water for 30-60 seconds. The resulting mirror copy is photographed at the required scale.
Adsorption-luminescence method (ALM). The method is based on increasing the luminescence intensity of dyes when they are adsorbed onto a polymer film treated with an organic solvent. ALM is used to differentiate writing materials in order to establish additional writing, identify filled-in, crossed-out, and smeared texts, and determine the sequence of execution of intersecting strokes.
Strokes are copied using PVC film soaked in a solvent (dimethylformamide, cyclohexanone, tetrahydrofuran, etc.). The print is irradiated with ultraviolet light and its luminescence is studied in a darkened room.
The method is most effective for differentiating dyes that are similar in color. When determining the sequence of execution of intersecting strokes, observation and recording of the luminescence of copied strokes in the visible and far red zones of the spectrum is effective.
It is recommended to use white PVC film for white goods. PVC film will dissolve in many organic solvents (cyclohexanone, dimethylformamide, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, ethyl alcohol). Solvents have an active effect on many writing materials.
1-3 drops of solvent are applied to a film of a pre-selected size with a pipette, evenly distributed over the surface for 4-10 seconds so that the solvent is absorbed, and then the film is brought into close contact with the area of the document being examined for 1-3 seconds.
The contact time and pressure force depend on the solubility of the test substance, the problem being solved, and the properties of the document paper, so they are selected experimentally. The copying ability of the substance of the strokes is judged by the results of experiments, i.e. preliminary tests on peripheral areas of the document. It should be taken into account that in case of incorrect, especially long-term contact, the surface of the document paper may peel off and be damaged. In addition, in any case, ALM leads to irreversible changes in the strokes of the document details: the amount of coloring matter decreases, and the structure of the paper at the point of contact also changes.
Diffusion-copy method (DCM). This method is based on the phenomenon of diffusion - the surface penetration of molecules and ions of the substance under study into a moistened or dry gelatin layer of unexposed black and white (non-colored) photographic paper (the phenomenon was discovered and experimentally tested in 1903-1907).
When identifying invisible and low-visibility texts, it is often possible to achieve good results by using highly sensitive DCM. DCM technology uses the property of some organic water-soluble dyes to change its initial photosensitivity (sensitization) when exposed to a photoemulsion layer.
As is known, colorless silver halide, which is part of the photographic emulsion, has the property of breaking down to form black granular metallic silver under the influence of light and chemical reducing agents contained in developing solutions. In this case, only short-wave radiation in the blue-violet region of the spectrum acts on the emulsion. The sensitivity of the unsensitized photographic layer to short-wave blue-violet radiation is the natural photosensitivity of the photographic material.
When the document under study comes into contact with a moistened gelatin emulsion layer, dye particles that penetrate into the emulsion as a result of diffusion cause a change in the photosensitivity of the photographic material in the areas of their penetration. In some cases, the dye causes an increase in the sensitivity of the photographic emulsion to radiation from the long-wave part of the spectrum (yellow, orange, red rays, to which non-sensitized photographic material is not sensitive): the effect is called optical sensitization. In other cases, under the influence of the dye, the photographic emulsion becomes insensitive or very little sensitive to short-wave blue-violet radiation, to which the photographic material is naturally sensitive: a phenomenon called desensitization. In addition, dyes of writing materials to one degree or another increase the photographic veil, increasing the ability of silver halide to be destroyed under the action of the developer without prior exposure of the photographic layer.
Depending on the concentration of the dye diffusing into the emulsion, either a sensitizing or desensitizing effect is observed. Typically, a small amount of dye causes sensitization of a photographic emulsion, i.e. when the strokes of the text to be identified are practically invisible or barely visible. A dye in a higher concentration causes the opposite, desensitizing effect.
The effect of the dye on the photosensitive photographic layer largely depends on the properties of the photographic emulsion itself. Since the essence of the method is to change the natural sensitivity under the influence of dyes, only non-sensitized photographic material (photo paper) is suitable for diffuse copying.
The use of DCM for identifying invisible and low-visibility texts, as well as recordings made with water-soluble dyes and then smeared, filled in, crossed out with water-insoluble dyes, consists of sequential execution in a darkroom under non-actinic red light next steps(Fig. 1.7):
The photographic material is soaked in water (preferably distilled) until the gelatin emulsion layer swells (from 1 to 20 minutes);
Excess water from the emulsion layer is removed by shaking the photographic material (apply filter paper without pressing it, since when pressed, its fibers may stick to the photographic emulsion and interfere with the diffusion of the dye);
The swollen emulsion layer is applied to the surface of the document, in the area of which there is a text or seal imprint to be detected (contact time is determined experimentally);
The photographic material with dye molecules diffused into the photographic emulsion is placed in a black-and-white contrast developer in a cuvette located under the lens of a photographic enlarger, and is illuminated through the KS-2 or OS-18 or ZhS-8 s/f: with red, orange or yellow light until contrast appears images (or veils);
The resulting mirror image is reproduced and a direct image of the identified document details is printed.
Rice. 1.7. DCM scheme, where:
1 - diffusion of the coloring matter of the strokes into the emulsion
layer of photo paper:
2 - strokes of coloring matter:
3 - document backing:
4 - source of non-actinic lighting:
5.8 - filtered light source (s/f OS. KS. FS)
6 - photoemulsion layer of photo paper with a hidden image
7 - cuvette with developer;
9 - photoemulsion layer of photographic paper with a visible image:
10 - cuvette with fixing solution
Due to high sensitivity DCM its use often gives good results in cases where there is almost no dye in the strokes. In this case, copying can be done repeatedly with equal success, since the penetration of even an insignificant amount of dye into the photoemulsion layer causes a noticeable effect.
DCM is widely used to identify faded, erased, washed-out texts, “pale” printed impressions of seals and stamps, texts smeared with graphite pencil, black ink, as well as poorly visible texts on dark substrates.
The traditional DCM technique involves using moistened photographic material, thereby not eliminating the risk of damage to some details or fragments of the document or its significant changes or damage. The use of DCM modifications allows one to avoid this drawback.
Modification No. 1: “dry” DCM. Under non-active light, a piece of dry, unexposed glossy photographic paper is applied to the document props with an emulsion layer towards the object. The photographic paper is pressed tightly to the document and intensive friction of its reverse side is carried out for 2-7 minutes with a piece of woolen fabric to obtain an electrostatic charge that promotes the diffusion of the dye into the photoemulsion layer. Subsequent processing of photographic material is carried out in accordance with traditional method DKM stated above.
Modification No. 2: “fingerprint” DCM. A piece of transparent fingerprint film is placed on the examined fragment of a document with a low-visibility recording and pressed tightly, the duration of contact is 15-30 seconds. Then the traditional DCM technology is applied to the film: from dacto film to photographic paper, its illumination in the developer until strokes appear, etc.
Standardization is not only a type of activity, but also a set of methods necessary to establish the optimal solution to recurring problems and legitimize it as norms and rules.
Standardization method- this is a technique or a set of techniques with the help of which the goals of standardization are achieved.
Standardization is based on general scientific and specific methods used in standardization work.
Ordering standardization objects– a universal method in the field of standardization of products, processes and services. Streamlining as the management of diversity is primarily associated with its reduction. The result of streamlining work is, for example, restrictive lists of components for the final finished products; albums of standard product designs; standard forms of technical, managerial and other documents. Ordering as a universal method consists of individual methods: classification and systematization, selection and simplification, typification and optimization.
Classification is the division of a set of objects into subsets based on similarity or difference in accordance with accepted methods.
To classify objects of technical, economic and social information, hierarchical and facet methods are used.
The hierarchical classification method is characterized by the fact that the original set of classification objects is sequentially divided into subsets (classification groupings), and those, in turn, are divided into subsubsets, etc. The division of many objects into sections, classes, groups follows the principle from general to specific according to the main features that characterize these objects.
The facet classification method is characterized by the fact that a set of objects is divided into independent subsets (classification groups, facets) that have certain specified characteristics necessary for solving specific problems. From the total number of facets, those that are necessary to solve the task are selected, and a strict sequence is established, taking into account the task.
Systematization– this is an activity consisting in scientifically based classification and ranking of a set of specific standardization objects.
An example of the result of systematization work is the All-Republican Classifier of Industrial and Agricultural Products (OKP). According to the OKP, all industrial and agricultural products, based on the most significant characteristics, are divided into classes, subclasses, groups, subgroups and types. Species classification groupings are further specified in the assortment part of the sectoral sections of the OKP.
Based on industry, all products are divided into 98 classes. Products food industry belongs to class 91. Products of the canning and vegetable drying industry - to subclass 91 6. Subclass 91 6 contains 9 groups: canned vegetables, fruit, frozen products, etc. For example, canned products “Peppers stuffed with vegetables, in tomato sauce» premium, with a net weight of 320-340g will receive code 91 6111 4001.
Selection standardization objects - an activity consisting in the selection from a variety of types of products of such specific objects that are considered appropriate and sufficient to meet needs and further production. An example of selection is a set of weights that allows you to obtain any mass value with a minimum of weights.
Simplification– activity consisting in identifying specific objects that are recognized as inappropriate for further production and use in social production. The method consists in simply reducing the number of types (species, varieties) of products to an amount that is economically and technically feasible and sufficient to satisfy the needs that currently exist. In this case, no changes are made to the standardization object, no additional research. An example of simplification is the gradation of clothing by height, when out of a whole range of values corresponding to a person’s height, five out of six values were considered inappropriate:
…157,158, 159,160,161,162,163,164 …170 …176 …182 …
The processes of selection and simplification are carried out in parallel. They are preceded by classification and systematization of objects.
Typing of standardization objects– this is the activity of creating standard (exemplary) objects (designs, technological rules, documentation forms) based on progressive methods and modes of operation and characteristics common to a number of products. In contrast to selection, selected specific objects are subjected to technical transformations aimed at improving their quality and versatility.
So, in the early 60s. More than 100 design varieties of televisions were in service (including those previously discontinued). The task was set to eliminate the unjustified variety of schemes. To do this, the entire set of designs was subjected to systematization, as a result of which three options were identified based on the diagonal screen size - designs for televisions with a screen of 35, 47 and 59 cm. In each option, the most successful schemes were selected, which were then improved in order to increase reliability and maintainability. As a result, standard (unified) designs were created - CNT-35, CNT-47, CNT-59.
Optimization standardization objects is to find optimal parameters, optimal values of other indicators of quality and efficiency.
At the state level, the main optimization criterion is economic efficiency. However, simpler optimization criteria are often used - safety margin, permissible heating, etc., which are optimized in advance based on the condition of obtaining maximum economic efficiency.
In contrast to works on selection and simplification, which are based on simple methods of assessing and justifying decisions, for example, expert methods, optimization of standardization objects is carried out by using special economic and mathematical methods and optimization models. The goal of optimization is to achieve the optimal degree of ordering and the highest possible efficiency according to the selected criterion
Product unification–activities to rationally reduce the number of types of parts, units of the same functional purpose called unification. Unification consists in bringing many objects to a single form, to uniformity
Unification is based on classification and ranking, selection and simplification, typification and optimization of finished product elements. The main directions of unification are:
Development of parametric and standard size ranges of products, machines, equipment, devices, components and parts;
Development of standard products in order to create unified groups of homogeneous products;
Development of unified technological processes, including technological processes for specialized production of products - cross-industry applications;
Limiting the range of products and materials permitted for use to a reasonable minimum.
Aggregation is a method of creating machines, instruments and equipment from individual standard unified units that are repeatedly used to create various products based on geometric and functional interchangeability. For example, the use of boards of 15 sizes and standard boxes of three sizes in furniture production makes it possible to obtain 52 types of furniture with different combinations of these elements.
Aggregation is very widely used in mechanical engineering. To design and manufacture a large number of different machines, it was necessary, first of all, to divide the machine design into independent assembly units (units) so that each of them performed a specific function in the machine. This ensured that the units were manufactured as independent products, the operation of which could be checked independently of the entire machine. The generalization of particular design solutions, the development of unified units, components and the creation of machines based on these units made it possible to reduce production costs and ensure frequent replacement of machine designs.
In psychology there are various classifications research methods. Let us consider a classification whose criterion is research problem.
1) Problem identifying and describing psychological facts are solved by observation, conversation (questionnaire, survey, interview), method of studying the products of activity (study of documents, content analysis).
2) More difficult task studying patterns, that is, identifying the presence of a stable repeating connection solves the experiment (laboratory and natural).
3) Problem identifying mechanisms, i.e. cause-and-effect relationships, in psychology, it is solved by a formative experiment (transformative experiment, experimental genetic method).
Observation– systematic, purposeful and in a certain way recorded perception of mental phenomena in the natural conditions of everyday life. This method is one of the most accessible and widely used in psychology. When conducting observation, certain conditions must be observed.
1. Before any observation, the goal is formulated: what mental manifestation will be studied.
2. Depending on the purpose of the study, an object is selected (a person of the appropriate gender and age) and the situations in which the observation will be carried out.
3. When observing, it is necessary to maintain the natural living conditions of the research object. To do this, you should first become acquainted with the group where the observation will be carried out and adapt to this environment in 2–3 days. Then the observed behave relaxed and natural.
4. In order to preserve natural conditions, the researcher does not interfere with the activities of the object of study, who does not know that he is being observed.
5. It must be remembered that social stereotypes can affect the objectivity of recording and processing data. If a positive attitude has been formed towards the object of observation, then the researcher may not notice negative mental manifestations, and if he records them, he will most likely explain them as accidental. Conversely, with a negative attitude, the researcher may not notice the positive aspects, but concentrate his attention on negative facts and, when interpreting the data, explain them as natural and constant.
6. Observation provides objective data if it is carried out consistently and systematically, i.e. the subject of the study is observed at least 2–3 times in the same types of activities. This is due to the fact that the observed facts are not separated from many incidental phenomena.
7. It is necessary to develop and master in advance ways of recording data in the protocol. One should make a “photographic” record of all psychological facts without distorting or changing them. The protocol sheet is usually divided into two parts. The first part records the observed facts, and the second part records their possible interpretation (i.e. interpretation).
The observation method has the following positive features:
· not knowing that he is the object of research, a person behaves freely, naturally, the manifestations of his psyche are not distorted;
· the researcher can see the personality of the observed person as a whole, each fact is perceived as part of it;
· observation is not limited by age: it is conducted over all types of activities and behavior of a person of any age.
At the same time, the observation has a number of shortcomings:
· observed facts are merged with many associated phenomena;
· the researcher takes a wait-and-see position, not being able to interfere with the activities of the objects of observation. A psychic phenomenon may not manifest itself unless a corresponding situation accidentally arises;
· with the help of observation, it is impossible to quickly collect a large amount of material for two reasons: firstly, one person needs to be observed repeatedly, and secondly, the researcher cannot cause the phenomenon of interest to him, but must wait for it to happen;
· in the process of repeated observation it is impossible to obtain absolutely identical psychological facts, and therefore it is impossible to verify the initially obtained data;
· some subjectivity is possible when observing and processing data. An observer, in the spirit of his expectations, may attribute to a person thoughts and feelings that are unusual for him;
· Without the use of special recording tools, it can be difficult to accurately and correctly record observed facts. When recording facts, the researcher records them in a descriptive form, which significantly complicates their processing and interpretation. This method limits the use of mathematical data processing.
Conversation – method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication (i.e. in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of an issue of interest to the researcher). The effectiveness of the conversation depends on compliance with the following requirements:
1. Preparing and conducting a conversation includes setting a goal and choosing material for it. Questions for conversation should be clear, concise, specific, not too general, and should not prompt the person to answer.
2. The researcher learns the questions by heart and asks them to all respondents in a strictly in a certain order, seeking detailed answers. It is possible to use clarifying questions if the need arises during the conversation.
3. The conversation is conducted individually in a separate, carefully selected room.
4. Before conducting a conversation, it is necessary to select the object of research and establish a trusting relationship with him. To do this, you can first talk to him about a topic that interests him and only then proceed to pre-written questions. The conversation should be conducted casually, tactfully, unobtrusively and in no case be of the nature of “questioning”. It is very important that the researcher shows the person that he is interested in talking with him and listens to his answers.
5. Methods for recording data are preliminarily developed. It is possible to use technical means (tape recorder, voice recorder). It is allowed to separate the functions of the researcher and the protocolist. The interviewee's answers, his behavior, and emotional manifestations are recorded in detail in the protocol.
Advantages conversations are:
· the ability to simultaneously explore many aspects of the human psyche;
· the ability to quickly collect a fairly large amount of material about both one person and a group;
· the researcher is more active than in observation, as he asks questions;
· the possibility of repeated testing in order to clarify changes (for example, age-related);
Possibility of use on different stages research.
The conversation method has flaws:
· manifestations of subjectivity, since the selection of material, drawing up questions, getting into contact with the respondent, recording and interpreting answers depend on the skills of the researcher;
· age restrictions in the use of conversation. A child cannot always give an account of his experiences, feelings, or explain his preferences and actions, since he is just mastering speech as a means of communication.
Survey - conversation with standard set questions. The survey can be conducted orally and in writing:
1) interview –a method of obtaining psychological information using oral questioning;
2) survey(fr. enquête– list of questions) – obtaining information in the form of written responses from respondents to pre-formulated questions.
Method of analyzing activity products. Various documents, essays, diaries, drawings, other creative works, etc. can be considered as products of activity.
Advantages this method:
· the ability to collect a sufficiently large amount of factual material from both one person and a group of people in a short time;
· with constant use, the opportunity to obtain qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the mental characteristics of the subjects being studied;
· the possibility of repeated repetition to find out how natural the obtained fact is;
· because the result mental activity embodied in a material product, this item can be assessed by an infinite number of people (expert assessment);
· the material product can be stored for a long time;
· maintaining naturalness in the manifestation of the psychological characteristics of the object of study, which does not know that research is being conducted with it.
Flaws method of analyzing activity products:
· it can only be used when the child has already begun to master a certain type activities;
· processing the obtained data sometimes turns out to be extremely difficult, since it requires specially developed analysis schemes, which depends on the researcher’s ability to highlight all the psychological features of the resulting product. Then a violation of objectivity and the manifestation of subjectivism is possible, for example, when assessing the degree of originality of the drawing.
When studying documents, a special technique is used, called "content analysis"(literally “content analysis”) . This is a fairly formalized method of document analysis, when special “units” are identified in the text. Then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to use this method only in cases where the researcher is dealing with a large amount of information and analyzes numerous texts. In practice, content analysis in psychology is used in research in the field of mass communications.
Experiment(from lat. experimentum– trial, experience) – this is the active intervention of a researcher in the life activity of a subject in order to create conditions under which any psychological pattern is discovered. In psychology, there are two main types of experiments:
· laboratory experiment carried out in specially equipped premises, which ensures particularly strict control of independent and dependent variables;
· natural experiment – in this case the subject doesn't know, doesn't guess that he is participating in the study (the subject is performing his usual activity, and the experimenter is a familiar person to him).
For both types there are some general rules: the experimenter systematically manipulates one or more independent variables(this is the reason) and registers accompanying changes in the behavior of the object being studied, i.e. monitors changes dependent variables(this is a consequence). Organization of an experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions:
1. An experiment, like all research methods, requires preliminary setting of a goal and selection of an object.
2. It is necessary to carefully develop a methodology for conducting an experiment and prepare material for research. The material must be manufactured in strict accordance with the recommendations contained in the methodology.
3. The conditions in which the research will be conducted should be prepared in advance.
4. It is necessary to compile and memorize instructions and a description of the experiment procedure in advance. Moreover, it must be remembered that the instructions must be understandable to the subjects.
5. Before conducting an experiment, it is necessary to select a subject and establish friendly, trusting relationships with him. The researcher must win over the subject, which is accompanied by a relaxed, calm conversation, a smile, and approving gestures. You cannot emphasize the unusualness or exclusivity of the situation or take the position of an inspector. It is advisable to give the experimental procedure the character of ordinary friendly communication. Method materials cannot be used to establish contact.
6. It is necessary to react with restraint and evenness to the successes and failures of the subject during the experiment, unless otherwise provided by the research methodology.
7. The pace of the study must correspond to the individual psychological characteristics of the subject.
8. An experiment conducted with a child should not be very long. As a rule, it is limited to 15 - 20 minutes, unless another time is provided for by the research methodology. Moreover, the younger the child, the shorter the study should be.
9. An experiment always involves a standard procedure, so you cannot make any changes to it, for example, changing the instructions. It is necessary to ensure that the subject understands and accepts the instructions. It can be repeated 2-3 times without changes, but it cannot be explained if this is not provided for by the research methodology. All subjects must be presented with tasks in a strictly uniform manner, with the same intonation and voice strength, without emphasizing any words, except in specially specified cases.
10. The experiment is usually carried out by an experimenter and a protocolist. It is important that the latter is out of the field of view of the subject, but he himself can see and hear him well. In the protocol, he records the behavior, speech and emotional reactions of the subject in accordance with the criteria provided for by the research methodology. We especially emphasize that children’s speech is recorded preserving all its features, without correcting grammatical and other errors. The functions of the protocolist, therefore, are to accurately record psychological facts, the functions of the experimenter are to conduct research.
The experiment has a number of advantages:
· active position of the researcher (he does not wait until the subject has a mental phenomenon which he is studying. He himself causes it by creating appropriate conditions);
· the experiment can be repeated, i.e. once again evoke the mental phenomenon being studied, which means checking and clarifying the initially obtained data;
· the experiment allows you to quickly collect a large amount of factual material;
· experiment is a more objective method than observation, since its methodology contains clear criteria for recording and processing data;
· the method of recording data has been significantly simplified, since the phenomenon being studied is separated from a number of life circumstances;
· analysis of the experimental protocol is constructed in accordance with the given sequence of methods. The analysis of the obtained facts can be expressed in numerical terms and subjected to quantitative processing.
TO shortcomings experiments include the following:
· the experiment requires long and careful preparation. The reliability of the data obtained depends on the experimenter’s ability to set a goal, select material, accurately use instructions, monitor the time and sequence of task completion, the peculiarities of the subject’s reaction, as well as the ability to get into contact with him, and knowledge of methods for statistical processing of the obtained facts;
· the researcher is involved in communication with the subject and can unwittingly influence his behavior. The mental model can influence the facts obtained;
· a holistic picture of the subject’s psyche is not created;
· when conducting a laboratory experiment, the naturalness in the mental manifestations of the subject may disappear.
Formative experiment – a method of tracking changes in the human psyche during the active influence of the researcher on the subject. Having studied the mechanisms, we are able to simulate the phenomenon and actively control it.
Stages of the formative experiment:
1) stating stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate in it);
2) formative stage (only the experimental group of subjects participates);
3) control stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate).
At the ascertaining and control stages, the same research methods are used, which makes it possible to compare the results of these stages with each other, on the basis of which conclusions can be drawn about changes in the characteristics under study as a result of formative influences.
– this is the most common group of methods used in teaching practice in all school subjects and at all levels of education.
The source of knowledge is considered to be the word, which can be oral or written.
It is this that stimulates active cognitive activity students, provides a higher culture of auditory perception and thinking, develops reading, oral and written speech, and also requires the skills of analysis and synthesis, concretization and opposition, the ability to reason and draw conclusions.
Verbal methods include story and explanation, conversation and discussion, lecture, and work with a book. These methods are widely used during the formation of theoretical and practical knowledge, verbal exchange of information between teacher and students is supported. However, familiarization with the material is carried out mainly in a ready-made form, and therefore little attention is paid to setting and solving problematic problems, performing creative tasks, development of cognitive independence and initiative in children.
Story and explanation
A story involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of educational material. This method is used at all stages of school education; only the nature of the narrative, its volume, and duration change. According to the goals, several types of stories are distinguished: story-introduction (preparing students to perceive new educational material, story-exposition (disclosure of content new topic), conclusion story (conclusions and generalization of what has been studied).
During the story, such methodological techniques as activation of attention, associative and logical comparisons, comparisons, highlighting the main thing, and summarizing are used. At the same time, a number of pedagogical requirements are imposed on the story, in connection with which it must: contain exclusively accurate facts; include a sufficient number of clear and convincing examples and facts proving the correctness of the proposed provisions; have a clear logic of presentation; highlight the main provisions, ideas, and concentrate children’s attention on them; be emotional, expressive; be presented in a clear and accessible language; lasts no more than 10 minutes, since children quickly get tired and their attention wanders. The presentation of the material can also be combined with reading fragments from a textbook or study guide, students writing down definitions and dates, and repeating the most important, current provisions and conclusions.
Explanation - verbal interpretation of patterns, significant qualities of the object being studied, disclosure of facts, derivation of laws and methods of action, presentation of experiments. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying theoretical material, solving problems and theorems, when revealing circumstances and consequences in natural phenomena and social life. In this case, the teacher must comply with the following requirements: specifically formulate goals and objectives, clearly pose questions to be disclosed; present the material clearly and consistently; ensure that children understand educational information, involve them in active observation of the phenomena being explained; establish connections with already studied material. Explanation can be combined with the use of visual aids, conducting experiments, and using ICT.
Conversation and discussion
Conversation is one of the more well-known methods of didactic work, its main function- stimulating, but at the same time it successfully performs other functions. The essence of the conversation is to, with the help of targeted and skillfully posed questions, encourage students to update the knowledge they have already acquired, to make independent judgments and generalizations. The conversation forces the student to follow in the footsteps of the teacher’s idea, as a result of which he moves step by step in mastering new knowledge. This method activates thinking, is an effective means of diagnosing acquired knowledge and skills, promotes the development of cognitive abilities of students, and its educational role is also great.
According to their purpose and structure, conversations can be introductory (organizing), heuristic, systematizing (consolidating), control and correction. For an effective conversation, it is necessary vocational training teacher, since he must correctly formulate the topic and ask questions that are naturally interconnected and appropriate age development students. The question is asked to the whole class and only after a short pause for reflection is a student called in to answer. Correct answers are approved, incorrect or incomplete answers are commented on and clarified. If no one can answer, it is necessary to reformulate, split into parts, and pose a leading question. An important condition for a full conversation is clear discipline in the lesson and the establishment of close contact between the teacher and students, which allows you to work in an atmosphere of understanding, goodwill, and openness. It should be noted that conversation is a very labor-intensive method of teaching, as it requires a lot of time, effort, and professional skill.
Discussion as a teaching method has the goal of stimulating cognitive interest, drawing students into an intensive discussion of various scientific points of view on a particular issue, encouraging them to comprehend information and argue their own position. But for this it is necessary to have at least two different views on the issue under discussion. Without existing knowledge, discussion becomes pointless, meaningless and inaccurate, and without the ability to express an idea, it becomes confusing and contradictory. In addition, there are special rules discussions, including: limited speaking time for each student, discipline and mutual respect, restraint, dignified acceptance of someone else’s position, etc.
Lecture
A lecture differs from other verbal methods:
- more rigid structure;
- logic of presentation of educational material;
- abundance of information provided;
- the systematic nature of the lighting of the material.
The subject of a school lecture is considered to be preferably a description of complex systems, phenomena, objects, processes, and the cause-and-effect relationships between them. It follows from this that the lecture is applicable exclusively in high school, when students have already achieved the level of preparation required to perceive and comprehend the lecture material. The duration of the lecture takes a whole lesson or even two.
The pedagogical requirements for the lecture are as follows: creation by the teacher of a detailed draft of the lecture; familiarizing students with the topic, purpose and objectives of the lecture; logically consistent presentation of all points of the plan; short summary conclusions after covering each point; natural relationships when moving from one part of the lecture to another; problematic and emotional presentation; timely inclusion of examples, comparisons, facts; contact with the audience; an appropriate pace of presentation that allows students to write down the main points.
Working with a book
Working with a textbook and book has become one of the main teaching methods. The textbook presents the material accurately and in a systematic manner. The student has the opportunity to repeatedly process educational information at a pace and time that suits him. Educational books successfully perform teaching, developing, educating, stimulating, control and correction functions.
The purpose of independent work with a book can be to become familiar with its structure, skim through it, read individual chapters, search for answers to specific questions, study the material, summarize individual passages, solve examples and problems, and memorize the material. Teaching children to work with the words of textbooks and books, developing their need for reading is the most important task of the teacher.
As a rule, two types of work with a book are used: in a lesson under the guidance of a teacher and independent work at home. In this case, they are used the following techniques: note-taking, creating a plan, thesis, quoting, reviewing, creating a reference, a thematic thesaurus. The teacher must constantly exercise children in reading, teach them to analyze what they read, find answers to questions, work with diagrams and tables, use reference books, dictionaries, and encyclopedias.