Who was the last president of the USSR. Mikhail Gorbachev - first and last president of the USSR
Period from 1985 to 1991 went down in history as a time of great changes, which ultimately led to the collapse of a large and powerful state. The highest post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1985 was taken by Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev, who in 1990 was elected to the post of President of the USSR. After he came to power, a number of reforms were adopted aimed at changing the economic situation in the country and rapprochement with many world countries, including the United States. This whole process was called "perestroika". We will try to consider the essence of these reforms and the results to which they led in the article.
Socio-economic and political situation in the USSR in the mid-80s of the XX century
As part of the emerging process of democratization, laws were passed aimed at expanding freedom of speech. At this time, newspapers began to appear, on the pages of which one could find criticism of the current government. Citizens were granted the right to engage in entrepreneurial activities. For the first time in the entire history of the country, a reform was carried out, as a result of which the CPSU lost its status as the leading party of the USSR. This made it possible to create a multi-party system of power with equal chances of victory for any of the political organizations. The Secretary General initiated a large-scale program for the rehabilitation of political prisoners, as a result of which many repressed citizens were acquitted, including academician Andrei Sakharov.
One of Gorbachev’s most radical decisions, aimed at changing the established foundations of socialist society, was the establishment of the post of President of the USSR instead of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. A corresponding law was adopted and amendments were made to the constitution, according to which citizens of the country aged 35-65 years could be elected to this position for a period of 5 years. The same person could not hold this post more than 2 times. All citizens of the Soviet Union who had reached the age of majority could take part in the elections of the head of state. But the first president of the USSR was elected not by popular vote, but by the decision of politicians at the Third Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies, which took place in March 1990.
It was unanimously decided to confirm Mikhail Gorbachev to the highest position of the country. But he could not hold out for long in his new position, and on December 25, 1991, he had to resign. And the next day, the decision was approved to terminate the existence of the largest state on the planet. In light of those events, Gorbachev went down in history as the last president of the USSR.
Foreign policy
In the process of general democratization, serious steps were taken in the foreign policy arena aimed at rapprochement and cooperation with the countries of Western Europe and the United States. A whole program was formed, called “New Thinking”. It stated that the world should not be divided into two warring camps, where conflicts are resolved through military force.
The new conditions recognized the freedom of choice of all citizens. To this end, the influence of the Communist Party on the governments of Eastern Europe was reduced. This led to uprisings that overthrew the socialist leadership in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe. During negotiations between Gorbachev and Reagan, a decision was made to reduce the nuclear potential of both countries, including medium- and short-range missiles. This marked the beginning of the end of the Cold War. The issue with Russian troops in Afghanistan remained unresolved. But during negotiations with the United States, an agreement was reached under which the Americans stopped providing military assistance to the Mujahideen, subject to the withdrawal of the Russian contingent from the country.
Results of the board
The political activities of Mikhail Gorbachev cannot be assessed unambiguously. On the one hand, he is a reformer who tried his best to pull the country out of stagnation and establish a dialogue with the West. On the other hand, all the decisions he made were ineffective and, as a result, accelerated the collapse of the USSR. President Gorbachev was never able to gain a foothold in his position, and among the masses he earned the reputation of a pro-American politician who destroyed the Soviet Union. Be that as it may, Gorbachev went down in history as the first and last president of the USSR who was able to end the Cold War.
Mikhail Gorbachev is one of the most famous public figures of the 20th century. He became the first president of the Soviet Union, and also the only one, because soon after his leadership the country ceased to exist.
In youth and childhood
Gorbachev's personality is quite interesting. He entered not only Soviet, but also Russian history. His actions in the political field had an impact on the situation in the world. Gorbachev is assessed differently: some believe that he really improved the lives of Russians, others are sure that all the troubles that began after the collapse of the USSR were entirely his fault.
Mikhail Gorbachev was born in the Stavropol Territory in 1931. His parents lived in the village of Privolnoye. They were ordinary peasants, they worked hard, but lived poorly.
Expert opinion
Konstantin Pavlovich Vetrov
Assistant and Advisor to the Minister of State Control of the USSR, Hero of Socialist Labor, historian, Doctor of Historical Sciences. Author of many scientific works on the history of the Soviet Union.
Gorbachev's childhood was marked by the German occupation. Later he often recalled this event.
When Mikhail Sergeevich turned 13 years old, he went to work on a collective farm, but did not leave school. He managed to successfully combine work and study. At first he was assigned to work at a mechanical and tractor station. After some time, Gorbachev began to help the combine operator, which was a very difficult and difficult task. Nevertheless, the teenager coped with it, which is why he was awarded the order in 1949. This badge of honor was given for exceeding the plan.
Gorbachev studied well. He graduated from school with a silver medal. Enrolling as a lawyer at Moscow State University also passed without problems. While already studying at a higher educational institution, he joined the Komsomol, in which he was later one of the most active participants. This event marked the beginning of his political career. In 1952, Gorbachev became a member of the CPSU, and soon became the first secretary of the city committee of the Komsomol of the city of Stavropol.
Political activity
As mentioned above, Gorbachev’s career began with the Komsomol. It was during this period that he realized that he wanted to get involved in politics. Because of this, he refused the job offer as a lawyer.
Is Gorbachev to blame for the collapse of the USSR?
YESNO
Later, Gorbachev went back to study. At the Stavropol Agricultural Institute, he received a diploma as an agronomist economist. After that, he became a party organizer of the Stavropol agricultural administration. After this, his career began to develop even faster. Gorbachev moved into the category of promising politicians.
During Gorbachev’s work in the agricultural department in the Stavropol region, there were good harvests. Thanks to his growing indicators, Mikhail Sergeevich began to be considered an excellent expert in the field of agriculture. This opened the way for him to the post of ideologist of the CPSU on issues in this area.
In 1947, Gorbachev was elected to the Supreme Council. Here he headed a commission dealing with youth issues. The very next year he was transferred to the capital, where he was appointed secretary of the Central Committee. This was done on the initiative of Yuri Andropov. He considered Gorbachev very educated and experienced.
1980 was the year when Mikhail Sergeevich began working in the Politburo. He had a hand in many reforms, in particular those that were carried out in the political system and the economy. He actively initiated “perestroika”. His reports on this topic were welcomed by both his colleagues and the entire Soviet people. Activities in this direction made Gorbachev famous; he was known as a global reformer. This gave him significant support. Already in 1985, he was elected General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. At this post, Gorbachev proclaims a course towards democratization, he begins reforming the country.
Mikhail Gorbachev tried to bring the huge country out of stagnation. He made a number of changes to foreign policy. Ultimately, his actions led to the collapse of the USSR.
In particular, a “prohibition law” was introduced within the country on Gorbachev’s initiative. Also, in his presence, money was exchanged and self-financing was introduced. Mikhail Sergeevich stopped the war that lasted for many years in Afghanistan, he also did a lot to end the Cold War with Western states.
Expert opinion
Fedor Andreevich Bryansky
Russian historian-source specialist, private associate professor at many universities, writer, candidate of historical sciences.
Under this leadership, the liberalization of society began in the USSR, and censorship was lifted. Such steps received positive responses from the population, this made Gorbachev popular.
There were also some actions of the politician that were assessed as unsuccessful. In particular, economic reforms failed. They were too inconsistent, which only led to a worsening crisis in the country. Because of this, the standard of living of ordinary citizens was reduced.
According to new legislation in 1990, Gorbachev began to be called president. He became the first and last to have such a title in the USSR. He did not remain in his post for long. Soviet society had already been significantly changed; it was already difficult to control. Strikes were organized every now and then in the country, people were dissatisfied with the shortage of the most necessary goods, and the economic crisis was making itself felt. The country already had a minimum of strategic resources, collapse was inevitable.
Already in 1991, the State Emergency Committee was created. The State of Emergency Committee was created by Gorbachev's allies. They demanded that the president relinquish his powers, but he did not agree. Instead, Gorbachev initiates a coup d'etat using weapons. Ultimately, we still had to come to an agreement. In December of the same year, the Belovezhskaya Agreement was signed, according to which the USSR ceases to exist, and the CIS is created. This document was signed by 11 union republics.
After this, Gorbachev resigned. He retired from political life and took up science. In particular, he created the International Foundation for Socio-Economic and Political Research. It was headed by Mikhail Sergeevich himself. This organization studies history, in particular, the perestroika period of the USSR. The foundation is financed from Gorbachev's personal funds, as well as from charity.
At the moment, Mikhail Sergeevich supports the current Russian President Vladimir Putin.
Personal life
Mikhail Gorbachev was married only once. His wife was Raisa Titarenko. The young people got married in 1953. At that time, Mikhail Sergeevich was still a student; he earned money for his wedding by working on a collective farm.
The life of the Gorbachevs was calm and measured. Their only daughter was born in their marriage. In 1999, Raisa Gorbacheva died; before her death, she suffered from leukemia for a long time. Mikhail Sergeevich took it hard.
In 2015, Gorbachev began to get sick. It became known that he has severe diabetes, which leads to frequent crises. Because of this, he is often forced to be hospitalized. Despite this, Gorbachev is actively writing books. Many of them are autobiographical, but there are also those in which he criticizes current reality.
(last in office)
President of the USSR- position of head of state in the USSR in -1991.
The post of President of the Soviet Union was introduced on March 15, 1990 by the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR with appropriate amendments to the Constitution of the USSR. Before this, the highest official in the USSR was the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
Under the President of the USSR there was a cabinet of ministers - the Government of the USSR and other advisory and management bodies.
Story
According to the Constitution of the USSR, the President of the USSR was to be elected by citizens of the USSR by direct and secret ballot. As an exception, the first elections of the President of the USSR were held by the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Mikhail Gorbachev, as well as Nikolai Ryzhkov and Vadim Bakatin, who withdrew their candidacies, were nominated as candidates. National elections for the President of the USSR were not held.
The first and only President of the USSR was Mikhail Gorbachev, who took the oath as President of the USSR at a meeting of the Extraordinary III Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in the Kremlin Palace of Congresses on March 15, 1990.
After the introduction of the highest position of the President of the USSR, the posts of President also began to be introduced in the union and autonomous republics.
Notes
see also
- Political Advisory Council under the President of the USSR
Links
- Constitution (Basic Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (adopted at the extraordinary seventh session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the ninth convocation on October 7, 1977) (as amended on December 26, 1990)
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Wikimedia Foundation.
2010. President of the USSR
The position of President of the USSR ceased to exist on December 25, 1991 with the resignation of M. S. Gorbachev. According to the Constitution of the USSR, the President of the USSR was to be elected by citizens of the USSR by direct and secret ballot. As an exception, the first elections of the President of the USSR were held by the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Due to the collapse of the USSR, popular elections of the President of the USSR never took place. The first and only President of the USSR was Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev. In the first half of 1990, almost all union republics declared their state sovereignty (RSFSR - June 12, 1990).
From 1992 to the present time M.S. Gorbachev is the president of the International Foundation for Socio-Economic and Political Science Research (Gorbachev Foundation). In the summer of 1991, a new union treaty was prepared for signing. The attempted coup in August 1991 not only dashed the prospect of its signing, but also gave a powerful impetus to the beginning of the collapse of the state. In 1991, on December 8, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (Belarus), a meeting of the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus was held, during which a document was signed on the liquidation of the USSR and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev announced his resignation as President of the USSR.
Analysis of the institution of Presidential power in the system of government bodies of the Russian Federation is undoubtedly one of the current trends in modern state and legal research. The range of problems relating to the political and legal status of the President of the Russian Federation is very wide and varied. In practice, it affects all sides and aspects of the institution of presidential power in the country: firstly, its very essence, purpose, place and role in the system of other government bodies; secondly, the prerequisites and necessity for its establishment; thirdly, the legal powers and functions of the President of the Russian Federation;
fourthly, general and special requirements for candidates for the presidency; fifthly, socio-political status; sixth, the boundaries of presidential power, the mechanism for its implementation and many others. It is safe to state the fact that in our society there is no unambiguous understanding of the constitutional and legal status of the President of the Russian Federation.
However, initially, among these problems, it is necessary to consider the reasons for the establishment of the post of President in the Russian Federation in the early 90s.
According to Part 1 of Art. 80 of the 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation - “The President of the Russian Federation is the head of state.” In domestic constitutional law, the head of state is traditionally understood as an official (or body) who formally occupies the highest place in the hierarchy of state institutions and positions, exercising the supreme representation of the country in domestic political activities and in relations with other states.
The institution of the head of state owes its existence in the modern world to the late feudal institution - the absolute monarchy. At the time of the formation of bourgeois statehood, the thinking of the new ruling class was limited by the historical framework of a particular era. This was manifested, first of all, in the fact that the bourgeoisie found many institutions and institutions of the feudal state attractive to itself. Therefore, it borrowed the institution of the head of state, which was essentially a purely feudal institution.
That is why, introducing even the most progressive, at this historical period of time, form of government - the republic, it retained, in principle, this feudal institution - the institution of the head of state.
The practice of constitutional construction of modern states shows that the head of state can be both an official and a special body. In a number of countries, the institution of the head of state is or has been in the past organized in the form of a supreme collegial body: the Federal Council in Switzerland, consisting of 7 members; Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of up to 170 members; State Council of the Assembly of People's Power in Cuba of 31 members, etc., which, along with the highest bodies of popular representation, represent the highest collegial bodies of state power. Headed, as a rule, by the Chairman, who independently exercises only those powers of the head of state that cannot be exercised collectively (for example, accepting letters of recall and credentials from ambassadors and other representatives of foreign states accredited to the country). At the same time, the place of these Councils (Presidiums, etc.) in the system of state bodies was determined by the fact that in all their activities they were accountable to the highest bodies of popular representation that elected them.
Thus, the accountability of the Presidium to the People's (National) Assembly was expressed in the fact that it could hear a report on its activities, if necessary, change some of the members of the Presidium, electing others instead, or even completely re-elect the Presidium before the expiration of its term of office.
During the Soviet period of national history, for about seventy years in our country there was precisely a collegial head of state - the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, consisting of, according to the last Constitution of the USSR of 1977. of 39 members (Article 120). At the same time, in order to identify the reasons for the radical renewal of the institution of the head of state, it is necessary to take into account that all this began during the existence of the USSR. First, in March 1990, the post of President of the USSR was introduced, and then in many union republics, including in March 1991. and in the RSFSR. Since the main reasons for the emergence of the institution of presidential power in our country are common, before considering the Russian Federation, it is necessary to analyze some general points.
The institution of presidential power has a relatively short history in the development of domestic statehood, since such an institution was organically alien to the Soviet republic. The absolute power of the Soviets, the combination of legislative and executive powers in them were organically incompatible with the principle of separation of powers, one of the expressions of which is the presence in the system of government bodies - the post of president. Therefore, the idea of establishing the post of President, which initially, as already noted, arose in the former USSR, met significant resistance from a part of people's deputies, supporters of the preservation of Soviet power, who quite reasonably saw in it a violation of the principle of sovereignty of the councils.
However, the growing processes of democratization and the renewal of the entire state system prevailed, and the post of President of the USSR in March 1990. was established, which led to significant changes in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR. March 14, 1990 The USSR Law “On the establishment of the post of President of the USSR and the introduction of amendments and additions to the Constitution (Basic Law) of the USSR” was adopted. According to the amended Constitution (Article 127), the President of the USSR became the head of the Soviet state. A USSR citizen no younger than 35 and no older than 65 could be elected. The same person could not serve as President of the USSR for more than two consecutive terms. The President of the USSR had to ensure interaction between government and administrative bodies. The USSR Constitution provided for elections
The President of the USSR by citizens, i.e. direct elections. However, the election of the first President of the USSR (who turned out to be the last, as practice has shown) in accordance with the law of March 14, 1990. happened at the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. Soon after this, a similar process of establishing the institution of presidential power began in the union republics, where decisions on this were made by the corresponding Supreme Councils.
Considering the question of the purpose and reasons for the emergence of the institution of presidential power precisely at the perestroika stage, it should be noted that constitutional legislation largely reflected and, as it were, summarized the numerous and sometimes very contradictory views and proposals that were expressed by legal scholars, people's deputies and journalists at stages of preparation and discussion of draft normative legal acts and issues relating to the general legal status and purpose of the institution of presidency in the country. When the post of President was introduced at the USSR level, a number of explanations followed, interpreting the reasons for the emergence of the institution of presidential power in our country, which cannot be ignored in relation to the Russian Federation.
Firstly, this is the separation of the functions of the party and the state. Previously, all the main issues of domestic and foreign policy were decided by party bodies and, thus, the main link in developing a strategy for state life was outside the state system. Now it was necessary to strengthen that link of state power, the functions of which had previously been replaced by party decisions. Secondly, after the separation of powers, there was a need to coordinate the activities of legislative and executive bodies. Thirdly, there was an urgent need to stabilize the situation and quickly resolve emergency situations. The existing structures turned out to be unsuitable for this. Of the above-mentioned circumstances, only the latter was more or less clear, since it is often necessary to quickly respond to a situation and make quick decisions that one person will do better than a board. Then there was the post of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, but the Chairman led the work of the Supreme Council and the Congress of People's Deputies (if its meetings were held) and performed the functions of the head of state, and at the same time was often not independent, which limited his capabilities.
Other factors were somewhat uncertain. For example, if functions were transferred from party bodies to state ones, then in the end they could partially pass to parliament, partially to the government. It is also unclear why the separation of powers determined the need for a coordinating body. After all, the separation of powers presupposes their mutual influence, and not the increased capabilities of one body in relation to others. Ultimately, it would be possible to strengthen the functions of the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR or make him a person coordinating the activities of central bodies.
World practice shows that the relevant state can concentrate in the hands of one person functions and tasks that are dispersed in other countries. Such tasks and functions are related to the representation and good of the state, its citizens and society as a whole and are more effective when carried out by one person rather than by a board. This person: firstly, is a symbol of a particular state, its unity, represents the highest state interests both within the country and in the world community; secondly, it represents the entire people of a given country, their interests and speaks on behalf of the people, stands above social, party, national and other unilinear interests and especially disagreements, coordinates society, cements socio-political and state life; thirdly, bears personal responsibility for the state of affairs in the country, ensures the stability of this situation, takes prompt measures and decisions to ensure order and security, to fulfill the international obligations of the state; fourthly, he stands at the head of the executive branch of the state apparatus, or above it, directs its activities; fifthly, he is declared the supreme commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces and thereby influences the defense of the state and the performance of military service by citizens; sixthly, he makes appointments to the highest positions in the executive branch, and often to all positions of judges, that is, in this sense, he is, as it were, the highest official of the country, the “chief state official”; seventhly, he is the supreme defender of the interests of the “common man”, resolves issues of citizenship, carries out rewards and pardons for citizens of the state, considers their complaints, etc. Naturally, this is a general theoretical view, but in practice, the application of the listed provisions can take place in their various combinations. Thus, the person who is the head of state can be either a monarch or a president.
Monarchies in most cases have gone from strong power to its sharp weakening and the head of state retaining mainly representative functions (the only exceptions today are some Middle Eastern kings and sheikhs). Presidents can also officially be at the head of the state, but the possibilities of their real participation in governance are significantly limited in favor of the government. However, there are also models in which, on the contrary, the key figure legally is the President. Situations are also possible when it is legally limited, for example, parliamentary control over its activities is declared, but in practice it is completely independent.
All this had to be taken into account when introducing the post of president in our country. At the same time, some purely domestic circumstances cannot be discounted. So, for example, with I.V. Stalin, and in a number of respects later, our country learned what personal power is and what negative consequences it leads to. Therefore, in connection with the introduction of the post of president, the question immediately arose: would this mean the restoration of the regime of personal power? At one time, in order to prevent another cult of personality, the CPSU Central Committee proclaimed the principle of collective leadership. But even then, the power of the general secretaries of the CPSU Central Committee was unquestionable both in the party and in the state. The question arose what would happen if now one person, according to the country’s constitution, that is, legally, gets into his own hands all the threads of leadership of the country! Further, the question arose as to whether there was a sufficient “niche” for presidential affairs, since representative functions could be entrusted to the Chairman of the Parliament, and the tasks of operational management of the country to the Chairman of the Government.
Taking into account the above, the following reasons for the introduction of the post of President of the USSR in our country are revealed: firstly, the democratization of the processes of governing the country quite quickly demonstrated that the Parliament and the Government, which was carried away by discussions, were really unable to make operational decisions and quickly implement them, so it was necessary to have one leader a state that would be responsible hourly for current affairs; secondly, in the conditions of the formation of the system of separation of powers, at this historical period, the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR and especially the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which worked on a permanent basis, took upon themselves a huge number of cases and assigned an almost peremptory right to resolve any issues. The presidency of the USSR in this case would become a counterbalance to the extremes of domestic parliamentarism; thirdly, in the absence of a parliamentary majority of one party, or an alliance of several parties in Parliament (or in its lower house), the President will objectively be forced to take on the function of forming the Government and directing its work, since conflicting parties could simply paralyze the functioning of the highest body executive power; fourthly, in the process of the formation of ideological pluralism and the rejection of political monism, the post of the General Secretary of the CPSU meant little, and the leadership of the CPSU did not want to limit its powers, while the introduction of the post of President of the USSR was considered by a significant part of party functionaries as a way to maintain the influence of the party in the changed social political and socio-economic conditions of the country; fifthly, the obvious objective desire of M.S. himself. Gorbachev to free himself from the tutelage of the “native party”. Since, a leader aimed at reforms had to check his every step with the Politburo and the Central Committee of the CPSU and at the same time fear that he would not only be overthrown from the party Olympus, but also from the post of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, since members of the CPSU are among other people's deputies of the USSR made up the overwhelming majority. Thus, the presidency provided an opportunity for former party leaders at the level of the Union and union (as well as actually in the autonomous republics) republics not only to maintain themselves in power, but also to fight the omnipotence of the party, and where they saw the Communist Party as a constant threat to their power , as for example, in the RSFSR, ban it altogether. The latter circumstance is, as it were, a domestic, including Russian, manifestation of a gaming tendency towards the introduction of strong presidential regimes, namely, where internal contradictions, pressure from various forces, including supporters of those who came to the presidency, encourage the corresponding individuals to fight for the presidency with tangible powers of the so-called super presidency.
The stated reasons for the introduction of the presidency have become well understood today, after a number of years have passed. Directly when establishing the post of President of the USSR, they preferred to emphasize that it contributes to the orderliness of affairs in the country, that the power of the President of the USSR will not be authoritarian, and even that there is no talk of any attempt on the role of the highest representative body of power of the USSR; on the contrary, he controls the activities of the President, can cancel the latter’s decrees and early release him from office if he violates the Constitution and laws of the USSR.
In fact, the President of the USSR was initially a strong political figure, which was ensured both by the Constitution of the USSR and by the personal authority of M.S. Gorbachev. Subsequently, a number of constitutional innovations appeared, indicating consistent attempts to strengthen the position of the President of the USSR. For example, initially he had little influence on the formation and leadership of the Government. But already with the amendments and additions to the Constitution of the USSR on December 26, 1990. It was established that the President of the USSR heads the system of government bodies, that the Government is subordinate to the President, that the latter forms the Cabinet of Ministers in agreement with the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Thus, during this period, the model of the institution of presidential power in the country was in dynamics. Consequently, there was no complete clarity on the question of what the President of the RSFSR should be like at the time of the establishment of this post. Obviously, there was only one thing: Russia needed the President - as, for that matter, any other union republic at that time - as the highest person who would take care of strengthening the independence of the state, representing and protecting its interests.
In Russia, the issue of establishing the post of President was resolved no less difficult. Initially, the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR spoke out against its introduction, then, on the initiative of a third of the deputies, it was scheduled for March 17, 1991. The All-Russian referendum, in accordance with the results of which this post was established. After the referendum, this issue no longer caused such lively debate and political confrontation as had previously taken place when discussing all the pros and cons of introducing the post of the Union President. According to L.A. Okunkov, most deputies probably shared the same opinion about the future priority of Parliament in relations with the President. Because even with such a serious change in the system of the highest bodies of Russia, the main role still remained with the Congress and the Supreme Council of the RSFSR. Since, firstly, all the powers of the President were determined by the Parliament itself; secondly, the power of the budget, the power of money, all the programs of the President, his administration, the entire executive branch would be financed by the Parliament; thirdly, Parliament reserves the right to repeal any decree of the President; fourthly, the President must issue decrees only on the basis of the Constitution and laws, that is, by-laws; and fifthly, Parliament reserves the right to remove the President of the Russian Federation from office. Apparently, that’s why out of 898 people’s deputies who took part in the voting, 690 were in favor of establishing the Law “On the President of the RSFSR.” As a result of the referendum, the laws of the RSFSR “On the President of the RSFSR”, “On the elections of the President of the RSFSR” of April 24, 1991 were adopted. and “On the assumption of office of the President of the RSFSR” dated June 27, 1991. Law of the RSFSR of May 24, 1991 Corresponding changes and additions were made to the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1978, in which a special chapter appeared. Based on these legislative changes, the first President of Russia was elected through general, direct, equal elections by secret ballot on June 12, 1991. It became B.N. Yeltsin, who previously held the position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR.
Thus, the introduction of the post of President of the RSFSR was a consequence of those difficult, but generally very progressive, democratic processes that have taken place and are taking place in Russian society and in its political system since the beginning of the 90s. It reflected the objective process of transformation of political power from the system of party bodies and organizations into the system of state bodies and organizations, including the institution of the President and the Councils. This seems to be the main, main, but not exhaustive explanation of the structural and functional changes that have occurred in the mechanism of the country's political power. It should be taken into account that there are many other, inextricably linked with the above - objective and subjective reasons, which also require separate special consideration. These include: firstly, the desire to fill, through the introduction of the post of President of the RSFSR, a kind of “vacuum” of power that arose in the country, in the process of carrying out economic and political reforms, as a result of the implementation of radical, but not always consistent and not always predictable in their consequences transformations. A situation has arisen that was correctly noted at the Congress of People’s Deputies by former Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee V.A. Medvedev, when “the old system, in which the party was the supreme governing body, has outlived its usefulness and is being dismantled. The processes of formation and development of a new parliamentary democratic system are unfolding. But these processes turned out to be not adequately supported by the creation of strong mutually balancing and mutually controlling structures in the state system, the role of which was previously performed by the party.” Secondly, the need to change federal relations in order to see in the institution of the president, established in such a complex multinational country as Russia, a kind of supreme arbiter elected by all peoples. The President of the RSFSR was supposed to act primarily as a coordinator in relations between sovereign republics. Thirdly, the need to have an integrating force not only in the political system of society and in the system of separation of powers, but also in society itself. Fourthly, the need to strengthen executive power and improve management efficiency. The point is, among other things, that the establishment of the post of President of the RSFSR was associated to a certain extent with the need, through the efficiency of presidential power, to neutralize the negative consequences caused by the slowness in the activities and decision-making of representative bodies, their well-known inertia, and the ineffectiveness of collegial leadership, especially when it was necessary make quick decisions on current issues that require prompt intervention.
Subjective reasons should not be underestimated. Among them, first of all: firstly, the obvious reception of this post by the all-Union leadership, this was expressed, first of all, in the fact that the Russian political elite found it attractive for themselves. Secondly, the desire of the then Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin to strengthen its status in the system of government bodies in order to carry out urgent socio-political and socio-economic reforms. Despite the obvious need, for the above reasons, to introduce the post of President of the RSFSR, the serious question remained open: which model of presidential power to choose. World experience offered several options. Firstly, the president is the head of state, with purely representative functions, he does not interfere in anything, but exercises only representative powers (assigns awards and titles, opens official events, receives foreign delegations, etc.), while all serious The job of running the country is done by the Prime Minister. Secondly, the president is also the head of state, but not for show, i.e. the ruler of the country who himself does or predetermines everything. Thirdly, the president is the head of state and the head of the executive branch, i.e. at the same time the leader of the country and the head of the state apparatus. This model would strongly focus the president on coordinating functions in relation to government bodies belonging to other branches of government. Fourth, the president is the head of the executive branch and the highest official. This model focuses the president on leading the government apparatus. This model can have various manifestations: the president is not the head of the government, but leads it to the point of presiding over its meetings; the president is officially the head of the government, forming its composition, except for the prime minister, whose candidacy is agreed upon by parliament, etc. Naturally, because of the first option, it made no sense to even begin introducing the post of president in Russia. Since, we were talking about strengthening the state itself, and the president was supposed to serve this goal. The state needed a strong figure to strengthen and defend its interests. The use of the second model in establishing the post of president was not very realistic, since the authoritarianism of this position was strong, which could generally bury the idea of the presidency. Such a model can be introduced only as the authority of the already functioning president grows (as was the case in France in 1958. ), but not from the beginning of this constitutional institution. For the same reasons, it is initially difficult to use the third model. Therefore, objectively, the fourth option remained. It was reflected in the regulations of the RSFSR.
In discussions on the issue of introducing the post of President of Russia, negative arguments were also expressed, in which ideas were expressed that the establishment of this post with strong, almost uncontrollable power could create the preconditions for the growth of authoritarian tendencies in the country, for the resurrection of the regime of personal power, for usurpation it by one person or his environment.
Period from 1985 to 1991 went down in history as a time of great changes, which ultimately led to the collapse of a large and powerful state. The highest post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1985 was taken by Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev, who in 1990 was elected to the post of President of the USSR. After he came to power, a number of reforms were adopted aimed at changing the economic situation in the country and rapprochement with many world countries, including the United States. This whole process was called "perestroika". We will try to consider the essence of these reforms and the results to which they led in the article.
Socio-economic and political situation in the USSR in the mid-80s of the XX century
As part of the emerging process of democratization, laws were passed aimed at expanding freedom of speech. At this time, newspapers began to appear, on the pages of which one could find criticism of the current government. Citizens were granted the right to engage in entrepreneurial activities. For the first time in the entire history of the country, a reform was carried out, as a result of which the CPSU lost its status as the leading party of the USSR. This made it possible to create a multi-party system of power with equal chances of victory for any of the political organizations. The Secretary General initiated a large-scale program for the rehabilitation of political prisoners, as a result of which many repressed citizens were acquitted, including academician Andrei Sakharov.
One of Gorbachev’s most radical decisions, aimed at changing the established foundations of socialist society, was the establishment of the post of President of the USSR instead of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. A corresponding law was adopted and amendments were made to the constitution, according to which citizens of the country aged 35-65 years could be elected to this position for a period of 5 years. The same person could not hold this post more than 2 times. All citizens of the Soviet Union who had reached the age of majority could take part in the elections of the head of state. But the first president of the USSR was elected not by popular vote, but by the decision of politicians at the Third Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies, which took place in March 1990.
It was unanimously decided to confirm Mikhail Gorbachev to the highest position of the country. But he could not hold out for long in his new position, and on December 25, 1991, he had to resign. And the next day, the decision was approved to terminate the existence of the largest state on the planet. In light of those events, Gorbachev went down in history as the last president of the USSR.
Foreign policy
In the process of general democratization, serious steps were taken in the foreign policy arena aimed at rapprochement and cooperation with the countries of Western Europe and the United States. A whole program was formed, called “New Thinking”. It stated that the world should not be divided into two warring camps, where conflicts are resolved through military force.
The new conditions recognized the freedom of choice of all citizens. To this end, the influence of the Communist Party on the governments of Eastern Europe was reduced. This led to uprisings that overthrew the socialist leadership in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe. During negotiations between Gorbachev and Reagan, a decision was made to reduce the nuclear potential of both countries, including medium- and short-range missiles. This marked the beginning of the end of the Cold War. The issue with Russian troops in Afghanistan remained unresolved. But during negotiations with the United States, an agreement was reached under which the Americans stopped providing military assistance to the Mujahideen, subject to the withdrawal of the Russian contingent from the country.
Results of the board
The political activities of Mikhail Gorbachev cannot be assessed unambiguously. On the one hand, he is a reformer who tried his best to pull the country out of stagnation and establish a dialogue with the West. On the other hand, all the decisions he made were ineffective and, as a result, accelerated the collapse of the USSR. President Gorbachev was never able to gain a foothold in his position, and among the masses he earned the reputation of a pro-American politician who destroyed the Soviet Union. Be that as it may, Gorbachev went down in history as the first and last president of the USSR who was able to end the Cold War.