The problem of commensurability of old and new theories. The problem of the dynamics of scientific knowledge

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ENERGY ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTOR OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES

The purpose of this study was to develop the theoretical and methodological foundations for the energy-economic assessment of costs associated with the production of agricultural products.

This problem attracts the attention of many foreign scientists, including Odum G.<...>K. Marx saw the commensurability of the fertility of the earth, as a productive force, with the invested material<...>Economic problems of stabilization and development of the Russian agro-industrial complex. M., 1995. 1 p.l. . 3.<...>Problems and prospects for the development of agricultural mechanization. In the book<...>Current problems of scientific and technological progress in the agro-industrial complex. M.

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The analytical materials presented in this article on the implementation of social projects of Gazprom Transgaz Stavropol LLC show that the social component of the company’s activities is diverse and multifaceted. Part of the social policy of Gazprom Transgaz Stavropol LLC is the task of creating a corporate culture, social and educational activities, educational and cultural programs. At the general meeting of shareholders of OJSC Gazprom, serious tasks were set in the field of gas production and transportation. It is impossible to solve them without paying attention to the social sphere of activity, because the human worker is the basis for fulfilling these tasks and creating conditions for effective work, which will allow the implementation of the economic and social policy of the company.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex 3/2015 36 UDC 658.386.4<...> <...>Kniga-Service Agency Copyright OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Kniga-Service Agency ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Problems<...>Their topics are varied: “The problem of water and rational use of water resources”, “The problem of energy consumption<...>", "Waste problem", "Global warming", etc.

The relevance of energy conservation and saving energy resources in buildings is beyond doubt. The transition to a market economy is accompanied by a significant increase in fuel and energy prices, as well as an increase in operating costs. The experience of a number of countries in the renovation of existing buildings shows that the maximum efficiency of energy saving measures is achieved if design solutions are based on the following principles: complexity (technical), optimality (economic) and balance (environmental)

The "moisture problem" is the main problem in the application of effective thermal insulation in multi-layer<...>The misconception that the "moisture problem" only affects reflective insulation is more a result of

The article contains an analysis of approaches to the formation of a unified terminology and experience in classifying innovations in the field of management. An approach to defining management innovations is proposed, options for their typology are considered.

the essence of management innovations, as well as options for grouping, “clustering”, are closely related to the problem<...>The classification constructed in this way includes a number of problematic innovative situations (“the problem of choosing<...>nature of growth", "the problem of forming a strategy and structure based on self-organization", "the problem<...>Management innovations in the USA: the problem of implementation / Ed. Yu. A.

Theory and practice of forming a responsible attitude of schoolchildren towards nature in the process of teaching biology

M.: PROMEDIA

pp. 2-13; Philosophical problems of global ER logni. M., 1983. Monoszon E.I..<...>School and problems of nature conservation. M., 1981; Sidelkovsky A.P.<...>Problems of methods of teaching biology. M., 1974; Vsesvyatsky B.V.<...>Problems of didactics of biology. M., 1969; Myagkova A.N., Komissarov B.D.<...>progress; third (1516 years) the problem of controlled evolution; fourth (16-17 years old) problem of the sphere.

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Historical types of thinking and engineering activities

M.: PROMEDIA

stating the problem, but not enough to solve it" " "..<...>Scientific interest in the problem of needs arose in ancient times."<...>process of philosophical understanding-problem.<...>Problems and contradictions with which the object iryMbey e?<...>*I-42, 2, The way of thinking of the era and engineering activity (experience in posing a problem).

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M.: PROMEDIA

<...> <...> <...> <...>

Development of pedagogical creativity of the future teacher in the process of studying a computer science course. abstract dis. ...cand. ped. sciences

Various aspects of this problem are covered in the works of A.S. Belkin, E.I. Boyko, Yu.N. Kulyutkin, V.A. Slastenin<...>The research problem is to find ways to overcome the contradiction between the increased need of society<...>The relevance and professional significance of the problem under consideration, its insufficient theoretical and<...>A theoretical and empirical basis has been created for further research on related issues.<...>The first chapter, “Development of pedagogical creativity of a future teacher as a pedagogical problem,” consists

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Psychological views of Alexander Fedorovich Lazursky

M.: PROMEDIA

Useful information on this issue is contained in the works of S.L. Rubinstein, who analyzed the problems<...>Taking into account the above, the choice of research topic was made, the problem of which is formulated as follows:<...>Solving this problem is the goal of the study.<...>In accordance with the problem, object, subject and purpose of the study, the following tasks were formulated<...>Considering the solution to the problem of psychological methods as a necessary condition for the formation of a new branch of science

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CO2 EXCHANGE OF SOYBEAN GENOTYPES, DIFFERING IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC CHARACTERISTICS AND PRODUCTIVITY ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE AZERBAIJAN SSR

The purpose of this work was to study carbon dioxide gas exchange, diurnal and ontogenetic dynamics, as well as its components in leaves of various soybean genotypes, differing in photosynthetic traits and productivity, in connection with the formation of crop yields under different growing conditions.

<...>technical conference on the topic "Chemistry and Agriculture" (Baku, 1989); at the All-Union Conference on the topic "The Problem<...>Matln Zssoyuzp. xny. on the topic "The problem of nitrogen in intensive agriculture."

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M. Bakhtin's solution

The book contains an analysis of the main philosophical, methodological and literary-aesthetic ideas that form the core of the scientific heritage of Mikhail Bakhtin, a widely known Russian philologist and thinker of the 20th century. The author explores the connection of M. Bakhtin's discoveries with the phenomenological and neo-Kantian traditions, analyzes the key concepts of Bakhtin's heritage: dialogism, monologism, polyphony, carnivalization, polyphony, ambivalence, official and humorous culture, chronotope, one's own and someone else's word. Particular attention is paid to the problems of metalinguistics and speech activity. At the same time, A. Pankov draws attention to the paradoxes and dilemmas that arise in the concept of M. Bakhtin in connection with the latter’s appeal to issues that require a systematic approach. In this regard, for the interpretation of theoretical material, little-known concepts of Russian methodologists who actively worked in the field of the General Theory of Activity (the work of G.P. Shchedrovitsky and others) in the 50-80s are used. A significant place is devoted to Bakhtin's understanding of genres, “poetic language,” and the history of the novel. The book talks about the artistic worldview as a subject of literary research and the role of literary criticism in the processes of reproduction of literary activity. Particular attention is paid to the category of “reflection” and “reflexive” motives in the works of M. Bakhtin. The originality of Bakhtin's view of medieval culture and the work of Dostoevsky is revealed.

with the problems of pedagogy...<...>Obviously, in terms of a systemic approach, the problem of “out-of-placeness” can be interpreted as a problem<...>In the article "The Problem of Text..."<...>Here is both the problem of the historian-observer and the problem of sociological ontology, which works when considering<...>(Problems of lexicology.

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PROCESSES OF NITROGEN CYCLE IN THE SOIL - PLANT SYSTEM AND THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THEIR REGULATION BY AGROCHEMICHAL PRACTICES ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTOR OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF UD

Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the processes of transformation and interaction of nitrogen fertilizers with soil and with plants, development and theoretical justification of methods for agrochemical regulation of the nitrogen cycle as a condition for the effective and environmentally balanced use of fertilizers

Copyright JSC "CDB "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORK Relevance of the problem<...>in the environment" (Pushchino, 1989), "The problem of nitrogen in intensive agriculture" (Novosibirsk, 1990),<...>Figure 5 shows that the degree of nitrogen mineralization of microbial biomass and oat biomass with a narrow C:N ratio is comparable<...>equation of the Lily relationship between the difference and isotope coefficients in a large array of variables is commensurate<...>assessed by the dynamics of changes in its reserves, as well as plant material with a narrow C:N ratio (8-15) is comparable

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GOOD speech is the most important condition for the full development of children. The richer and more correct a child’s speech, the easier it is for him to express his thoughts, the wider his opportunities in understanding the surrounding reality, in communicating with peers and adults, the more active his mental development is. Therefore, it is so important to pay timely attention to the formation of the child’s speech, to its purity and correctness, preventing and correcting various speech disorders.

Of course, problems arose during the implementation of this program and it was not always possible to solve them, however<...>A huge problem is the lack of communication.<...>“The issue of tolerance and other issues raised have nothing to do with the appearance of a new subject,”<...>According to him, the problem raised by the proposed course is serious, but it must be solved differently.

The article substantiates the mechanism of endogenous salt release. Salt strata of rocks of different geological periods and their tectonic intrusions in the form of salt domes and stocks are predominantly endogenous in nature. They occur as a result of crystallization of deep salt-saturated solutions erupted through crustal faults and dislocation of the sedimentary cover through gas “fistulas”. Brines are formed due to the influx of surface water into the semi-melt zone of gas-saturated rocks of the asthenolens, which is associated with crustal depressions and a large river drainage

Gubkin noted back in 1937 that “the problem of salt domes is one of the most difficult and confusing

According to Ronald Coase, polluters are interested in minimizing their internal costs, and they usually ignore external costs. The article proposes a mechanism for internalizing externalities and coordinating the interests of subsoil users and the state on the issue of well abandonment

Special case of negative externalities: the problem of well abandonment* Special case of negative externalities<...>The solution to the problem lies in the field of internalization of externalities - this is the process of including externalities in the market<...>The first person to identify the existence of the implementation problem was a graduate student from the Financial University under the Government<...>In his work, he considered the solution to the problem of externalities in the dichotomy of the views of Arthur Cecil<...>Resolving the problem of liability for past environmental damage, including for wells

M.: PROMEDIA

Assessment of the market value of a business.

Current problems of modern science, No. 1, 2011 15 Bachurin A.P., Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor Dadugin<...>Among the domestic researchers on the problems of business valuation are Grigoriev V.V., Ostrovkin<...>Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency Current problems of modern science, No. 1<...>“Problems of Economics” No. 1(35), Publishing House “Sputnik+”, 2010 – pp. 57-59 8.<...>Azgaldova “The problem of harmonizing estimates and its possible solution” / Questions of assessment, 1999, No. 4 12. O.

The article provides a literary review of the work of Yu. Trifonov "" Time and place

ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF SEMEN OF BOARS SUBJECT TO SINGLE TOTAL GAMMA IRRADIATION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

ALL-UNION ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The purpose of our work was to study over time the quality of the semen of large white and landrace breeding boars after their single total gamma irradiation in doses of 100, 200, 300 x 400 R at a radiation power of 100 R/h and an energy of 0.66 MeV.

This work relates to the problem of sustainability of livestock farming under radiation conditions.<...>research was reported at the 42nd 43rd scientific and methodological conferences of graduate students and young scientists on the topic "Problem<...>Semennikov kryaks // Abstracts of the 43rd scientific and methodological conference of graduate students and young scientists "Problems

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Expressive movements of students and their psychological classification

M.: PROMEDIA

Many authoritative researchers of the problem of expressive movements note a large gap between practical<...>The initial problem lies in its poor performance.<...>were discussed, discussed and presented at the Republican Scientific-Iraqtic Conference "Problems<...>set out in 128 pages of typewritten text, including 4 1 introduction, 2 three, chapters: chapter one “Problem”<...>In the book: Problems of personality formation in collective activities and communication.

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Arsenal of education: characteristics, preparation, design of educational publications (monograph. - M.: Book, 1986. - 288 pp.)

M.: PROMEDIA

In the 70s and 80s, more than 98 dissertations were defended in the USSR on the problems of educational books.<...>The problem of formulating its principles is now emerging as one of the most important.<...>Kraevsky "The problem of scientific substantiation of teaching" (1977), I.K. Zhuravleva, L.Ya. Zorina.<...>The study of the problem is summarized by defining a group of criteria for the quality of educational books.<...>Problems of the school textbook. Vol. 5-2. M.: Prosveshchenna, 1974.-27 al. (comp.).

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AGROPHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL BASES OF INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY AND FERTILITY OF SODD-PODZOL SOILS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

AGROPHYSICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Purpose of research. To establish the agrophysical and biological basis for increasing crop yields and fertility of automorphic sod-podzolic soils in field crop rotations. Main research objectives 1. Identify agrophysical and biological criteria and establish indicators of changes in the fertility of soddy-podzolic soils. 2. Develop an environmentally adapted and resource-saving field crop rotation for the production of crop products and increasing the fertility of sod-podzolic soils with automorphic moisture.

General characteristics of the work Relevance of the problem.<...>chemical ameliorants in agroecosystems” M., Moscow State University, 1997; International scientific and practical conference “Problem<...>Moisture reserve in the complete soil profile. We consider the problem of fertility exclusively in relation to<...>"Problems of nature conservation in the Non-Black Earth Zone in connection with the intensification of agricultural production<...>Problems of nature conservation in the Non-Chernozem zone in connection with the intensification of agricultural production

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The introduction of modern technologies for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of various diseases, the level of population satisfaction with the quality of medical services provided does not go beyond negative assessments, as evidenced by the results of sociological studies conducted by VTsIOM, Levada Center, the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, as well as on the initiative of the authors of the article . Based on the theoretical approaches of sociologists to the study of the peculiarities of the functioning of social institutions of modern society, the authors point out as one of the main reasons for the paradoxical development of the institute of medicine in Russia at the present stage, the instability of patients’ trust in its main actors and structures. The article discusses the types of trust in medicine and the factors influencing their formation, among which the authors indicate as key the social status of the doctor in modern Russian society, his economic and legal status, stereotyping of public consciousness by the media and the creation of a negative image of a medical worker, as well as the lack of formation of health-saving behavior among the population. Particular attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal trust, which, according to the authors, is a key determinant in the formation of relationships in the doctor-patient system in modern conditions of transformation of the hierarchical structure of social interactions into a linear one, which is due to objective processes of further informatization of society.

Particular attention is paid to the problem of interpersonal trust, which, according to the authors, is key<...>60%), ...every fifth of those surveyed who called an ambulance encountered certain problems<...>Analysis of sociological data shows that, along with problems in organizing the work of medical<...>in almost 80% of cases, emergency doctors are forced not only to deal with a specific problem<...>The problem of trust. M.: Idea-press; 2002. 12. Freik N.V. The concept of trust in P.’s research.

USE OF NUTRIENTS IN DIETS CONTAINING NITRATES BY HEIFERS AND FIRST COWS AT DIFFERENT LEVEL OF VITAMIN C ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

Purpose and objectives of the research. The purpose of this work is to study the effect of ascorbic acid or sodium ascorbate on the possibility of reducing the negative effect of nitrates contained in feed on the absorption of nutrients in diets, productivity and some indicators of reproduction in animals.

All-Union Conf. young scientists and specialists "Problems of milk production and processing".<...>"Problems of nitrogen metabolism." Volgograd, 1990. P.28-29. 3.<...>"The problem of nitrates in animal husbandry and veterinary medicine." 1 Kyiv, 1990, 4. Buryakov N.P., Skoblin V.G.

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Systematization and consolidation of students’ knowledge in the process of solving problems when studying vectors in a high school planimetry course

M.: PROMEDIA

Analysis of psychological, pedagogical and methodological literature on the problem of knowledge acquisition, observation<...>To solve the problems, the following methods were used: theoretical study of the problem; analysis<...>scientific and methodological literature on the problem under study; monitoring the work of teachers and students<...>literature on the problem under consideration.<...>Problems of the psyche and memory. M., 1966. C.I92.

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AGROECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE NITROGEN MINERALIZING ABILITY OF WATERWILLING IN THE MOSCOW REGION ABSTRACT OF DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

Goals and objectives of research. The purpose of this work was to assess the possibility of using the value of soil nitrogen mineralization capacity (NMC) to solve problems of ecological and agrogeochemical monitoring and to identify the factors that determine quantitative changes in the pool of mobile nitrogen using the example of various agricultural and natural landscapes of the Moscow region.

Successful solution to the problem of rational use of the natural resource nitrogen, including its environmental<...>The results of the study were reported at the All-Union conference "Problems of rational use<...>and environmental protection" (Minsk, 1990); All-Union meeting "The problem of nitrogen in intensive agriculture<...>on the level of mineralization of nitrogen-containing organic compounds // Phtikokhichcheskne and environmental problems

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RATIONALE FOR THE PARAMETERS OF THE LEVELING WORKING BODY OF THE RIPPER-LEVELER ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES

UZBEK RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF MECHANIZATION AND ELECTRIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE

Purpose of research. Justification of the shape and parameters of the leveling working body of the ripper-leveler for pre-sowing tillage.

Determination of the height of the external neck // Collection of scientific papers of the international scientific and practical conference "Problem

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Loneliness and alienation in adolescence and young adulthood

M.: PROMEDIA

The conducted study of the problem of alienation is based on the following provisions put forward by us<...>In the second chapter, “Methods for studying the problem of “Alienation and loneliness in adolescence and youth”<...>Social and psychological problems of mentality. Smolensk, 1993. P. 11 2) Dolginova 0.B.<...>Current problems of social psychology and pedagogy.<...>Social and psychological problems of mentality. Smolensk, 1996. pp. 125-128 1 GOS. nLUCHNAYA.

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The value aspect of the historical development of personality

M.: PROMEDIA

The problem of values is not some kind of recent invention.<...>One of the first major works devoted to the problem of values was the monograph published in 1960<...>" . , 1903, p. 23. 2.Chag1.l B.L. The problem of value and evaluation in the light of the works of K. Marx, V. Engels, I."!.<...>Lenin, In the book: The problem of value in philosophy ~: . , 1966, p.13.<...>In this collective work, the problem of values is considered from various positions of social and philosophical

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Cross-cultural study of aggressive behavior in adolescents in Russia and Yemen

M.: PROMEDIA

The urgency of the problem is due to the increase in the number of adolescents with antisocial orientations, with high<...>and empirical studies concerning various aspects of the problem under study.<...>In Russian psychology and criminology, special attention is paid to the problem of aggression.<...>An approach to the problem of personality from the point of view of a system of relations, presented by Myasishchev V.N., 1994 and<...>Aggressive behavior and its causes in adolescents // Problems of psychology. No. 2.

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Interdisciplinary connections in teaching physical geography

M.: PROMEDIA

Some issues of this problem were studied in a number of Danish PhD theses-1.<...>At the second stage, the main ways to solve the problem were outlined, experimental training was carried out<...>The main provisions of the dissertation research were presented at the All-Union Conference on the problem<...>The first chapter, “The problem of interdisciplinary connections in pedagogy and methods of teaching geography,” discusses<...>p r e d m e t o v; development of the age aspect of this problem; s t a v l e

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Psychological foundations of intellectual activity

M.: PROMEDIA

Problems of heuristics", "Higher School", I., 1969.-e.152173.<...>"Problems of psychological diagnostics", Tallinn, 1977. p. 67 -83. 14 . 0 paths to creativity.<...>"The problem of activity in Soviet psychology", part I, I., 1977. p. 1 1 2 1 2 0 . 16 .<...>Methodological and methodological problems in the study of goal setting.<...>Methodological problems", Yaroslavl University Publishing House, 1986. pp. 3 6 4 2. 3 1.

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Motivational component of psychological readiness to choose a profession in early adolescence (using the example of the profession of a foreign language teacher)

M.: PROMEDIA

Chapter I “The problem of psychological readiness to choose a profession in early adolescence* includes<...>three paragraphs that are devoted to a theoretical analysis of the problem of psychological readiness to make a choice<...>Analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature on the problem / M.I. Dyachenko, L.A. Kandybovich, 1976; V.G. Podmarkov<...>Central Design Bureau "BIBKOM" & LLC "Agency Kniga-Service" Our research included the following stages; I / studying the problem<...>Current psychological and pedagogical problems of foreign language teacher training. Bitter.

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The article presents the results of an analysis of works from the late 19th to the first quarter of the 20th centuries devoted to the problems of social hygiene. It has been established that the emergence of social hygiene was directly related to a radical revision of ideas about the causes and essence of diseases, which created the necessary conditions for the transfer of ideas and methods of political economy, sociology and eugenics to medicine. It has been proven that the emergence of social hygiene was a natural consequence of those fundamental changes in mass medical consciousness that characterize the scientific revolution in medicine in the last quarter of the 19th - first half of the 20th century.

Russia The article presents the results of an analysis of works from the end of the 19th century to the first quarter of the 20th century, devoted to the problems<...>For citation: Problems of social hygiene, health care and history of medicine. 2015; 23 (6): 14-18<...>Isolated attempts to attract the attention of colleagues to the problems of socio-economic Copyright JSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM<...>“The problem of the constitution,” wrote T.<...>Problems of social hygiene, health care and history of medicine. 2015; 3: 49-56. 14. Bogomolets A.A.

Formation of psychological readiness of the academic group curator for educational work

M.: PROMEDIA

OJSC Central Design Bureau BIBKOM & LLC Book-Service Agency G; OED CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK AND L\ Relevance of the problem<...>Unfortunately, there is a problem with teacher training!<...>At the same time, the problem of forming psychological readiness for pedagogical activities of future<...>An analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature on the problem of readiness for teaching activity showed<...>In the book: Psychological and pedagogical problems of motivation for educational and work activities: Abstracts. report All-Union

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ECONOMIC ISSUES OF IMPROVING WORKING CONDITIONS OF MECHANIZERS IN CONNECTION WITH TECHNICAL PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE ABSTRACT OF DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

Objectives: 1. To reveal the main theoretical issues in the study of working conditions from a Marxist-Leninist position. Define and reveal the content of working conditions. 2. Identify the influence of scientific and technological progress on the working conditions of machine operators, taking into account the characteristics of agricultural production. 3. Consider the main methodological points in assessing the economic efficiency of improving the working conditions of tractor drivers. 4. Determine the main ways to increase labor productivity and the objectivity of social production in connection with reducing the loss of working hours while improving the labor conditions of machine operators.

. :, " " "..." "."". The economic aspects of the problem of improving working conditions have attracted attention in recent years<...>The relevance of the problem and its socio-economic significance for socialist agricultural<...>Abstracts of reports and scientific and technical background of SO VASYASH a CaSJSO "The problem of rational use

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INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF MOLYBDENUM PROCESSING ON THE YIELD AND QUALITY OF PEAS GRAIN ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

INSTITUTE OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UKRAINIAN SSR

The purpose of the work was to study the effect of molybdenum on the yield and quality of pea grain on meadow-chernozemic podzolized soil with different methods of its application (pre-sowing seed enrichment, row application of molybdenum superphosphate, foliar feeding of plants with ammonium molybdate solution).

All-Union interuniversity meeting on the problem: "Trace elements and natural radioactivity."<...>"The problem of nitrogen and crops in Polesie." /In print, in collaboration with Pechura A.L., Ivchenko V.I./.

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AGROCHEMICAL RATIONALE FOR THE USE OF RAW GROUND PHOSPHORITES OF THE SYUNDIUKOVSKOYE DEPOSIT FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS ON LEACHED CHERNOZEMS OF THE TATAR ASSR ABSTRACT OF THE DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

M.: ALL-UNION ORDER OF LENIN AND ORDER OF THE RED BANNER OF LABOR ACADEMY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES NAMED AFTER V. I. LENIN

The purpose of the research was to identify the feasibility of using raw ground phosphorite from the Sindyukovskoe deposit on leached chernozems of the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.

conference "Biology for Agriculture" (Kazan, IS87), All-Union scientific and technical conference "Problems<...>Abstracts of reports of the All-Union scientific and technical conference "The problem of soil fertility problems in

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MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF PIG KIDNEY CELLS IN VITRO TO THE INTRODUCTION OF ALIEN GENETIC MATERIAL ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The goal of our work was to search and develop an optimal method for genetic transformation of cell cultures of domestic animals, taking into account their morpho-physiological response to the introduction of foreign nucleic molecules.

When solving * this problem, researchers are faced with the problem of using certain methods<...>- "BIZH. 1990. at the All-Union "meeting "The problem of the development of biotechnology in animal husbandry." -.<...>cells of farm animals "// Abstracts of reports of the All-Union Scientific and Technical Meeting "Problems

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M.: PROMEDIA

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PROBLEMS OF WOMEN'S LABOR AND RURAL EMPLOYMENT IN THE CONDITIONS OF FORMATION OF A MARKET ECONOMY ABSTRACT OF THE DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES

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The goal is to develop main directions for improving the employment of rural women, taking into account the entire complex of social, economic, demographic, and regional characteristics.

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The article discusses some mechanisms for the formation of fracture zones and faults, in which fluids have a significant impact on the occurrence parameters. The hypothesis of the fluid origin of listric faults in the consolidated crust and upper mantle is substantiated

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Spiritual and ecological content and forms of folk games as a means of development of younger adolescents

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New philosophical use of the word incommensurability - the result of conversations Paul Feyerabend With Thomas Kuhn on Telegraph Avenue in Berkeley around 1960.

What did it mean before these two people reintroduced it into use? This word had a precise meaning in Greek mathematics. It meant they do not have a common measure.

Two length segments have a common measure (commensurable) if (for some n and m) m segments of the first length are equal in length to n segments of the second length. Thus, we can measure one segment by another. Not all lengths are comparable. The diagonal of a square is not commensurate with its side, or, as we now express this fact, √2 cannot be represented by a rational number of the form m/n, where m and n are integers.

When philosophers use the metaphor of incommensurability, they do not mean anything so precise. They think about comparing scientific theories, but of course there cannot be an exact measure for this purpose. After twenty years of bitter debate, the word incommensurable came to refer to three different things. I will call them incommensurability of questions, disunity and incommensurability of meaning. The first two, unlike the third, can be quite clear. […]

Structure of science Ernest Nagel, published in 1961, was one of the classic works of philosophy of science written recently in English. (Titles can say a lot. The main success of 1962 was the book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions). Nagel talks about stable structures and continuity. He takes for granted that knowledge tends to accumulate.

From time to time, theory T is replaced by theory T1. When should a theory be changed? Nagel's idea is that the new theory T1 should be able to explain the phenomena that theory T explains, and, in addition, make all the valid predictions that theory T makes. In addition to this, it should either exclude some erroneous part T, or cover a wider range of phenomena or predictions. Ideally, T1 does both. In this case, T1 absorbs, includes (subsumes) T.

If T1 absorbs T, then, roughly speaking, there is a common measure for comparing both theories. In any case, the correct part of T is included in T1. So we can metaphorically say that T and T1 are commensurate. Such commensurability provides a basis for rational comparison of theories. […]

The most important characteristic of knowledge is its dynamics, i.e. its growth, change, development, etc. This idea, not so new, was already expressed in ancient philosophy, and Hegel formulated it in the proposition that “truth is a process” and not “a finished result.” This problem was actively studied by the founders and representatives of dialectical-materialist philosophy - especially from the methodological positions of the materialist understanding of history and materialist dialectics, taking into account the sociocultural conditionality of this process.

However, in Western philosophy and methodology of science of the 20th century. in fact - especially during the years of the “triumphant march” of logical positivism (and it, indeed, had considerable success) - scientific knowledge was studied without taking into account its growth and changes.

The fact is that logical positivism as a whole was characterized by a) absolutization of formal logical and linguistic issues; b) hypertrophy of artificially constructed formalized languages (to the detriment of natural ones); c) concentration of research efforts on the structure of “ready”, established knowledge without taking into account its genesis and evolution; d) reduction of philosophy to private scientific knowledge, and the latter to a formal analysis of the language of science; e) ignoring the sociocultural context of knowledge analysis, etc.

The development of knowledge is a complex dialectical process that has certain qualitatively different stages. Thus, this process can be considered as a movement from myth to logos, from logos to “pre-science”, from “pre-science” to science, from classical science to non-classical and further to post-non-classical, etc., from ignorance to knowledge, from shallow incomplete to deeper and more perfect knowledge, etc.

In modern Western philosophy, the problem of growth and development of knowledge is central to the philosophy of science, represented especially clearly in such movements as evolutionary (genetic) epistemology and postpositivism. Evolutionary epistemology is a direction in Western philosophical and epistemological thought, the main task of which is to identify the genesis and stages of development of knowledge, its forms and mechanisms in an evolutionary manner and, in particular, to build on this basis the theory of the evolution of science. Evolutionary epistemology strives to create a generalized theory of the development of science, based on the principle of historicism.

One of the well-known and productive variants of the form of epistemology under consideration is the genetic epistemology of the Swiss psychologist and philosopher J. Piaget. It is based on the principle of increasing invariance of knowledge under the influence of changes in the conditions of experience. Piaget, in particular, believed that epistemology is a theory of reliable knowledge, which is always a process and not a state. Piaget identified four main stages in cognitive (intellectual) development, which is characterized by a strict sequence of formation: sensorimotor, intuitive (pre-operational), concrete operational and formal operational. One of the first rules of genetic epistemology is, according to Piaget, the “rule of cooperation.” Studying how our knowledge increases (grows, increases), in each specific case it unites philosophers, psychologists, logicians, representatives of mathematics, cybernetics, synergetics and others - including social sciences and humanities.

The problem of growth (development, change) of knowledge has been especially actively developed since the 60s. XX century supporters of postpositivism - K. Popper, T. Kuhn, I. Lakatos, P. Feyerabend, St. Toulmin and others. Turning their attention to history, the development of science, and not just to a formal analysis of its “frozen” structure, representatives of postpositivism began to build various models of this development, considering them as special cases of general evolutionary changes taking place in the world. They believed that there is a close analogy between the growth of knowledge and biological growth, i.e. evolution of plants and animals.

In postpositivism, there is a significant change in the problems of philosophical research: if logical positivism focused on the analysis of the structure of scientific knowledge, then postpositivism makes its main problem the understanding of the growth and development of knowledge. In this regard, representatives of postpositivism were forced to turn to the study of the history of the emergence, development and change of scientific ideas and theories.

The first such concept was the concept of the growth of knowledge by K. Popper.

Popper considers knowledge (in any form) not only as a ready-made, established system, but also as a changing, developing system. He presented this aspect of the analysis of science in the form of the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge. In his concept, Popper formulates three basic requirements for the growth of knowledge. First, a new theory must start from a simple, new, fruitful and unifying idea. Secondly, it must be independently verifiable, i.e. lead to the presentation of phenomena that have not yet been observed. In other words, the new theory should be more fruitful as a research tool. Third, a good theory must withstand some new and rigorous tests

In the 50s, it was discovered that the “revolution in philosophy” proclaimed by neopositivism did not justify the hopes placed on it. The classical problems, the overcoming and removal of which neopositivism promised, were reproduced in a new form in the course of its own evolution. The very concept of neopositivism is increasingly being replaced by the concept of “analytical philosophy”. In the 60-70s in the west. philosophy of science develops a current of postpositivism. Postpositivists (Popper, Moon, Lakatos, Feirabenb, Polanyi) criticized the positivist ideal of fact, introducing a historical, sociological and cultural dimension into the analysis of science. The main thesis of postpositivism is that science is a historical phenomenon, science develops. Not only its theories and knowledge change, but the criteria and principles and even the mechanisms of its functioning change. Postpositivism is a general name used in the philosophy of science to refer to a variety of methodological concepts that replaced those inherent in the methodology of logical positivism. His offensive was marked by the release in 1959 of the English. version of Popper's main methodological work - "The Logic of Scientific Discovery", as well as in 1963 Kuhn's book - "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions". A characteristic feature of the postpositivist stage is a significant diversity of methodological concepts and their mutual criticism. These are Popper's falsificationism and Kuhn's concept of scientific revolutions, and the methodology of Lakatos' research programs, and Polanyi's concept of tacit knowledge. The authors and defenders of these concepts create very different images of science and its development. At the same time, there are common features characteristic of postpositivism:

1) Postpositivism moves away from the orientation towards symbolic logic and turns to the history of science. Those. we are talking about the correspondence of scientific constructions to real scientific knowledge and its history.

2) In postpositivism, there is a significant change in the problems of methodological research. In logical positivism there is an analysis of the structure of scientific knowledge, in post-positivism there is an understanding of the development of scientific knowledge.

3) Postpositivism is characterized by a rejection of rigid dividing lines, in contrast to positivism. Postpositivism speaks of the interpenetration of the empirical and theoretical, of a smooth transition.

4) Postpositivism is gradually moving away from the ideology of demarcationism professed by logical positivism. The latter believed that it was possible and necessary to establish a clear demarcation line between science and non-science.

5) A common feature of postpositivist concepts is their desire to rely on the history of science.

6) Postpositivism recognized that significant, revolutionary transformations are inevitable in the history of science, when a significant part of previously recognized and substantiated knowledge is revised - not only theories, but also facts, methods, fundamental worldviews.

Among the most important problems considered by postpositivism, we can note: a) the problem of falsification (Popper) - a fact that contradicts a scientific theory falsifies it and forces scientists to abandon it, but the process of falsification is not so simple; b) the problem of the credibility of scientific theories (Popper); c) the problem of commensurability of scientific theories (Kuhn and Feyrabend) - the incommensurability of competing scientific theories; d) the problem of rationality - a narrow understanding of rationality was replaced by a more vague one; e) problem of understanding; f) the problem of the sociology of knowledge.
Kuhn and Feyerabend put forward the thesis about the incommensurability of competing scientific theories, about the absence of common standards of comparison for them. This thesis caused great controversy.

T. Kuhn, posing the question of supplementing the consensus model, believed: competing theories are radically incommensurable, hence the impossibility for those who represent them to communicate with each other. T. Kuhn, having approached the problem of disagreement closely, essentially gave a description of the inter-paradigm disagreements that fill the ocean of the history of science. As an example, T. Kuhn takes the one set out in his famous work “The Copernican Revolution”. L. Laudan, analyzing T. Kuhn’s view on the problem of scientific disagreements, sees the main postulates of Kuhn’s point of view as follows: the period of the scientific revolution includes competing paradigms, but the latter are “chronically incomplete” (T. Kuhn’s term), and this incompleteness is the result incommensurability of paradigms, although opponents sometimes use the same terminology. It is impossible to translate any of the competing paradigms into another. The model proposed by T. Kuhn has two central ideas: the idea of disagreement (incommensurability) and the idea of maintaining agreement (normal science), although T. Kuhn tries to explain the transition from “normal” science to “crisis”, the transition from agreement to disagreement. In his work “Perfect Tension” T. Kuhn showed that this impossibility of translation is explained and caused by the fact that opponents in the debate respect different methodological standards, different cognitive values. On this basis, it is concluded that knowledge used as an attribute of theory for the enemy acts as an obstacle to the substantiation of his point of view; the content of theories, standards of comparison act as a prerequisite for dissensus. Moreover, T. Kuhn was able to show that dialogue within different paradigms is incomplete due to adherence to different methodological standards, and therefore dissensus is a state of science that is difficult to translate into the stage of consensus, dissensus is a constant characteristic of the life of the scientific community. The model proposed by T. Kuhn is not able, however, to resolve the question: how the stage of dissensus passes into the opposite stage - the stage of agreement, how scientists accept a single paradigm.

Underdetermination of theory by empirical data. Scientific rules and evaluation criteria do not make it possible to clearly prefer one of the theories. Various arguments and theses are put forward to substantiate this point of view. Among the latter is the Duhem-Quine thesis, the essence of which is that a theory cannot be accepted or rejected based only on empirical evidence; the Wittgenstein-Goodman thesis, the meaning of which is that the rules of scientific inference (both inductive and deductive) are vague and can be followed in different ways, often radically incompatible. The criteria for choosing a theory used by scientists are also vague, which prevents their use when choosing a theory, and, therefore, science is not a sphere that is governed by rules, norms, and standards.

A special place in the philosophy of science of the 20th century. occupied by the concept of the American philosopher and historian of science Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1929-1996). In his famous book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions,” Kuhn expressed a rather original idea of the nature of science, the general laws of its functioning and progress, noting that “his goal is to outline, at least schematically, a completely different concept of science, which emerges from the historical approach to the study of scientific activity itself."

In contrast to the positivist tradition, Kuhn comes to the conviction that the path to the creation of a genuine theory of science lies through the study of the history of science, and its development itself does not proceed through a smooth accumulation of new knowledge on old, but through a radical transformation and change of leading ideas, i.e. through periodically occurring scientific revolutions.

New in Kuhn's interpretation of the scientific revolution is the concept of paradigm, which he defines as “universally recognized scientific achievements that, over time, provide the scientific community with a model for posing problems and their solutions.” In other words, a paradigm is a set of the most general ideas and methodological guidelines in science, recognized by the entire scientific community and guiding scientific research over a certain period of time. Examples of such theories are Aristotle's physics, Newton's mechanics and optics, Maxwell's electrodynamics, Einstein's theory of relativity and a number of other theories.

Paradigm, according to Kuhn, or, as he proposed to call it later, the “disciplinary matrix” has a certain structure.

Firstly, the structure of the paradigm includes “symbolic generalizations” - those expressions that are used by members of a scientific group without doubt or disagreement and which can be put into a logical form, easily formalized or expressed in words, for example: “elements are combined in constant mass proportions” or “action equals reaction.” These generalizations superficially resemble the laws of nature (for example, the Joule-Lenz law or Ohm's law).

Secondly, in the structure of the disciplinary matrix Kuhn includes “metaphysical parts of paradigms” - generally accepted prescriptions like “heat represents the kinetic energy of the parts that make up the body.” They, in his opinion, “supply the scientific group with preferred and acceptable analogies and metaphors and help determine what should be accepted as a solution to the puzzle and as an explanation. And, conversely, they allow you to clarify the list of unsolved puzzles, helping to assess the significance of each of them ".

Thirdly, the structure of the paradigm includes values, “and, if possible, these values should be simple, not self-contradictory and plausible, i.e. compatible with other, parallel and independently developed theories... To a much greater extent than other types of components disciplinary matrix, values can be common to people who at the same time apply them differently."

Fourthly, Kuhn’s element of the disciplinary matrix is generally recognized “samples” - a set of generally accepted standards - schemes for solving certain specific problems. Thus, “all physicists begin by studying the same samples: problems—an inclined plane, a conical pendulum, Keplerian orbits; instruments—a vernier, a calorimeter, a Wheatstone bridge.” By mastering these classical examples, a scientist understands more deeply the foundations of his science, learns to apply them in specific situations and masters a special technique for studying those phenomena that form the subject of a given scientific discipline and become the basis of their activities during periods of “normal science.”

Closely related to the concept of paradigm concept of scientific community. In a sense, these concepts are synonymous. “A paradigm is what unites members of the scientific community, and, conversely, the scientific community is made up of people who accept the paradigm.” Representatives of the scientific community, as a rule, have a specific scientific specialty and have received similar education and professional skills. Each scientific community has its own subject of study. Most scientific researchers, according to Kuhn, immediately decide whether they belong to one or another scientific community, all members of which adhere to a certain paradigm. If you do not share faith in the paradigm, you remain outside the scientific community.

The concept of a scientific community after the publication of Kuhn’s book “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” firmly entered into use in all areas of science, and science itself began to be thought of not as a system of knowledge, but primarily as the activity of scientific communities. However, Kuhn notes some shortcomings in the activities of scientific communities, because “since the attention of different scientific communities is concentrated on different subjects of research, professional communications between isolated scientific groups are sometimes difficult; the result is misunderstanding, and this can subsequently lead to significant and unforeseen differences.” . Representatives of different scientific communities often speak “different languages” and do not understand each other.

Considering the history of the development of science, Kuhn highlights, first of all, the pre-paradigm period, which, in his opinion, is characteristic of the birth of any science, before this science develops its first universally recognized theory, in other words, a paradigm. Pre-paradigm science is being replaced by mature science, which is characterized by the fact that at the moment there is no more than one paradigm in it. In its development, it goes through several stages in succession - from “normal science” (when the paradigm accepted by the scientific community dominates) to the period of collapse of the paradigm, called the scientific revolution.

"Normal science", from Kuhn's point of view, "means research firmly based on one or more past scientific achievements, which for some time has been accepted by a particular scientific community as the basis for its further practical activities." Scientists whose scientific activities are based on the same paradigms are based on the same rules and standards of scientific practice. This community of attitudes and the apparent coherence they provide are the prerequisites for the genesis of “normal science.”

Unlike Popper, who believed that scientists are constantly thinking about how to refute existing and recognized theories, and for this purpose strive to set up refuting experiments, Kuhn is convinced that “...scientists in the mainstream of normal science do not set themselves the goal of creating new theories, usually Moreover, they are intolerant of the creation of such theories by others. On the contrary, research in normal science is aimed at developing those phenomena and theories whose existence the paradigm obviously assumes."

Thus, “normal science” practically does not focus on major discoveries. It only ensures the continuity of traditions of one direction or another, accumulating information and clarifying known facts. "Normal science" appears to Kuhn as "solving puzzles." There is a sample solution, there are rules of the game, it is known that the problem is solvable, and the scientist has the opportunity to try his personal ingenuity under given conditions. This explains the attractiveness of normal science to the scientist. As long as puzzle solving is successful, the paradigm acts as a reliable tool of cognition. But it may well turn out that some puzzles, despite all the efforts of scientists, cannot be solved. Confidence in the paradigm is falling. A state sets in that Kuhn calls a crisis. By the growing crisis, he understands the constant inability of “normal science” to solve its puzzles to the extent that it should do so, and even more so the anomalies arising in science, which gives rise to pronounced professional uncertainty in the scientific community. Normal research freezes. Science essentially ceases to function.

The period of crisis ends only when one of the proposed hypotheses proves its ability to cope with existing problems, explain incomprehensible facts, and thanks to this attracts the majority of scientists to its side. Kuhn calls this change of paradigms, the transition to a new paradigm, a scientific revolution. “The transition from a paradigm in a period of crisis to a new paradigm from which a new tradition of “normal science” can be born is a process far from cumulative and not one that could be achieved through a more precise elaboration or expansion of the old paradigm. This process is rather reminiscent of a reconstruction of a field on new grounds, a reconstruction that modifies some of the field's most elementary theoretical generalizations and many of the methods and applications of the paradigm."

Each scientific revolution changes the existing picture of the world and discovers new patterns that cannot be understood within the framework of previous prescriptions. “Therefore,” Kuhn notes, “during a revolution, when the normal scientific tradition begins to change, the scientist must learn to perceive the world around him anew.” The Scientific Revolution significantly changes the historical perspective of research and influences the structure of scientific papers and textbooks. It affects the style of thinking and can, in its consequences, go beyond the scope of the area where it occurred.

Thus, the scientific revolution as a change of paradigms cannot be explained rationally, because the essence of the matter is in the professional well-being of the scientific community: either the community has the means to solve the puzzle, or it does not, and then the community creates them. The scientific revolution leads to the discarding of everything that was obtained at the previous stage; the work of science begins, as it were, anew, from scratch.

Kuhn's book aroused interest in the problem of explaining the mechanism of change of ideas in science, that is, essentially in the problem of the movement of scientific knowledge... it has largely stimulated and continues to stimulate research in this direction."

Literature:

1) Buchilo N.F. Philosophy electronic textbook. M Knorus, 2009

2) Gaidenko P.P. History of Greek philosophy and its connection with science. Librocon 2009

3) Ilyin V.V. Philosophy and history of science MSU 2004

4) Kuhn T. Structure of scientific revolutions AST 2004

5) Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. M.: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivina. 2004.

N.F. Buchilo A.N. Chumakov, Philosophy Textbook. M., 2001

Buchilo N.F. Philosophy electronic textbook. M Knorus, 2009

Lenin V.I. “Materialism and empirio-criticism” vol. 18, ch. V.

Popper K. Logic and the growth of scientific knowledge. M., 1989.

Kuhn T. Structure of scientific revolutions. AST 2004

Reductionist and Popperian ideas about the dynamics of theories have been sharply criticized by American philosophers II. Feyerabend and T. Kuhn. At the same time, both proceeded from the thesis of incommensurability (English, incommensurability) theories, which they began to vigorously promote starting in 1962. 1 It is customary to talk about the Kuhn-Feyerabend thesis, but in essence for both authors it is not a thesis, i.e. not a proven position, but a metascientific principle that they sought to substantiate. The Kuhn-Feyerabend principle is still controversial to this day. T. Tsocharis and M. Psimopoulos called the philosophers in question “the worst enemies of science.” The main idea of Kuhn and Feyerabend was to emphasize the fundamental difference between the concepts of any independent theories. They believed that this circumstance was not taken into account in the positivists' concept of cumulative knowledge, according to which knowledge is continuously increasing, excluding any intermittency. In subsequent years, Kuhn and Feyerabend repeatedly clarified their position, but disagreed with each other on many issues. Let us consider in more detail the argumentation of both authors of interest to us.

In our opinion, a successful reconstruction of Feyerabend’s views was carried out by the German researcher K. Getman. He lists Feyerabend's eight arguments:

1. Replacement of theories is not always the result of falsification.
2. Some theories are excluded only because their alternatives have appeared.
3. Facts not described by them were discovered only thanks to alternative concepts.
4. Once disproven theories, such as ancient atomism, may be unexpectedly revived.
5. Strict requirements for refuting theories that contain anomalies are untenable.
6. Some theories cannot be deduced from their predecessors.
7. The empirical content of theories does not necessarily increase; it may also decrease.
8. Theories often become productive due to ad-hoc adaptations, i.e. hypotheses invented to explain a particular case.

These arguments are precisely intended to justify the principle of incommensurability of theories.

Experts in Kuhn's theory point to his three main principles:

1) replacement of problems and standards that determine the status of a scientific discipline;
2) changing the concepts used to solve problems;
3) the existence of scientists in various historically changing worlds 1.

with a friend. However, as P. Hoyningen-Huyn and E. Oberheim note, Kuhn and Feyerabend’s interpretation of the incommensurability of theories was often misunderstood. They were credited with denying the possibility of comparing theories. However, they recognized not only its possibility, but also its necessity.

English incommensurability translated into Russian in three ways: incommensurability, incomparability and disproportion. In accordance with the content of the works of Kuhn and Feyerabend, perhaps the best suitable term is disproportionality. The theories are disproportionate due to the differences in their concepts. But they, as Kuhn and Feyerabend recognized, are comparable. However, what is compared is, in some way, measured. This statement seems to clearly contradict the attitudes of the scientists in question. Nevertheless, it is appropriate. In this regard, let us refer to the positions of Feyerabend and Kuhn themselves.

According to Feyerabend, since theories are incommensurable, each of them is good in its own way. Incommensurable theories can be used for the purpose of "mutually criticizing" them. But how is “mutual criticism” of incommensurable theories possible? Feyerabend explained the situation with the following reasoning. Proposals of theories, e.g. T 1 And T 2, are associated with observation sentences 5. “Using the concepts introduced, we can now say that the empirical content of the theory G 2 is greater than the empirical content of the theory T ( , if for every associated statement in 7', there is some statement given by T 2, but not vice versa" 1. The above reasoning of Feyerabend is of key importance in assessing the correlation between the theories of G, and T 2. As it turns out, the empirical content of the theory T 2 more, than empirical content T ( . As we see, there is a commensurate. However, the mutual criticism of theories postulated by Feyerabend did not take place. In his example, scientific criticism acts as an interpretative vector T 2 => T and exclusive vector T,=>T 2.

Kuhn emphasized that the scientific community recognizes the characteristics of a good theory as accuracy, consistency, expansion of the original field of application, simplicity and fruitfulness. Conceding to the prevailing scientific opinion, he was partly ready to recognize these characteristics as objective criteria for choosing a good scientific theory. But, strictly speaking, Kuhn considered them not to be objective rules or criteria, but to be intersubjective values. Thus, Kuhn also denied the comparability and even a certain commensurability of theories. According to his concept, the theory that survives is the one that shows greater vitality in the competitive struggle.

Above we emphasized the well-known similarity between the positions of Kuhn and Feyerabend, which consists in relying on the principle of incommensurability of theories. Based on this, they nevertheless came to fundamentally different views regarding the dynamics of knowledge.

Feyerabend R. Explanation, Reduction and Empiricism // Feigl F., Maxwell G. (eds). Scientific Explanation, Space, and Time. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1962. P. 28-97; Kuhn T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.
Theocharis T., Psimopoulos M. Where Science Has Gone Wrong // Nature. 1987. No. 329.P. 596.

associated with the name of the French mathematician Poincaré - formulated at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, not a single concept of science can do without taking into account conventionalism. Conventionalism is a direction that considers agreement between scientists as the basis of scientific theory. Agreements between scientists are determined by considerations of convenience and simplicity and are not directly related to the criteria for the truth of scientific knowledge. The emergence of conventionalism was facilitated by the existence of various systems of geometry: Euclid, Lobachevsky and Riemann. Each of the systems is consistent with experience, but which is the true one? Within the framework of conventionalism, the following answer was proposed: they came to the conclusion that the laws of geometry are not statements about the real world, but are only agreements on how to use scientific terms. Within the framework of conventionalism, the concept of scientific law is being rethought. A scientific law from the point of view of conventionalism is a convention (agreement) necessary for the most convenient description of the relevant phenomena. Within the framework of conventionalism, it was thus realized that scientific theories are not direct generalizations of experimental data. And in this sense, such conventional elements cannot be eliminated from science. In addition, within the framework of conventionalism, the thesis about the incommensurability of scientific theories is formulated. From the point of view of this thesis, all scientific theories use different methods, and therefore their comparison (more precisely, rational comparison) is impossible. A scientist chooses a particular scientific theory not because he is convinced by rational arguments. The choice of scientific theory is carried out on the basis of ideological and socio-psychological preferences.

The principle of incommensurability, which states that theories cannot be compared with each other, from the point of view of the truth of scientific knowledge.

Feyerabend believes that the creation of clear universal standards in separating true knowledge from false knowledge is artificial and has a detrimental effect on the development of knowledge.

This principle echoes the principle of incommensurability of paradigms by Thomas Kuhn (it is revealed in T. Kuhn’s work “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”) Scientific textbooks present the development of science as a linear process of accumulation of knowledge and a consistent transition from weak or erroneous theories to more and more complete and true ones. In fact, Kuhn argues, the history of science is a more complex system. In his opinion, in the history of science there are a number of successive changes in scientific paradigms that the scientific community adheres to. A paradigm is a certain “philosophy” shared by scientists, a certain approach to scientific research, a general set of symbolic designations, etc.

Science can be in two “states”: the “period of normal science” - when an established paradigm is developing, solutions to problems are sought within the framework of this paradigm, or the period of “scientific revolution” - when the old paradigm is becoming obsolete and a new paradigm is being chosen from the many proposed approaches. During the period of “normal science,” theories can be compared with each other in terms of their suitability for solving the problems posed by the paradigm. However, different paradigms are not comparable with each other.

Unlike Kuhn, Feyerabend does not admit at all that there are any criteria for comparing theories or a point in time when they can be compared. Kuhn's two “states” of science are for Feyerabend only two opposing tendencies - towards conservation and change. In his opinion, micro-revolutions in science occur constantly, namely, when some brave scientist decides to move away from the old proven methods of scientific research or creates a theory that is absolutely incompatible with the old ones and opens up new horizons of knowledge.

Thus, there are no rules by which one can separate true knowledge from false knowledge or find out which theory is better or worse. Developing this idea, Feyerabend comes to the conclusion that it cannot be argued that scientific knowledge is more correct and valid than religious or mythological knowledge. They are equal ways of understanding reality, and rejecting any of them will be a loss, not a gain.

The problem of commensurability of old and new theories. The problem of the dynamics of scientific knowledge

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